英语的写作体裁有多种，不同体裁的写作是为了达到不同的目的。传统上英语把写作归为四大类:记叙文、描写文、议论文和说明文。虽然目前大学英语教材中的许多文章属于说明文和议论文，甚至大学英语四、六级考试作文和英语专四、专八的考试作文体裁也大都是说明文或议论文。
但是，值得指出的是，任何一篇英语文章的写作都不可能是自始至终的单一体裁的使用，而往往是多种体裁的综合运用。记叙文是写作中比较常用的一种表达方式，它就常常与描写文、说明文和议论文综合使用。在说明文中，亦常常运用叙述的方法来介绍事物的发展变化，或提供典型的事例，将事物的特征和本质说明得更具体、形象。在议论文中，可运用叙述来概括某些事实，从事实中引出论点，或以事实为依据来论证论点。下面介绍一下澳大利亚格里斯菲大学的四大体裁法教学案例。
Different Kinds of Paragraph Writing
Ⅰ.How to Write a Narrative Paragraph？（记叙文)
1．What is a narrative paragraph？
A narrative paragraph is one that briefly tells a story，describes an incident or a personal experience.
2.Requirements that a good narrative paragraph should meet：
Though its length is limited，it is complete，that is，it has beginning，middle and end.
It includes only details that are important to the point of the story.
Its sentences are connected by suitable linking words and expressions.
3.Here are some linking words and expressions：
afterward；later；when；shortly afterward；soon；while；the next day；before；then；and；at the same time；in the meantime；meanwhile；presently；recently；somewhat；later；finally；at last；eventually.
4.Study the following three narrative paragraphs and decide whether they meet the guidelines or not.
Passage 1
My most memorable experience in primary school happened in Ms.Chen’s geography class.She gave us a quiz that I hadn’t studied for.When I saw the ten questions，I knew I was dead.I didn’t know a single answer！I decided to guess.So I sat there at my desk，pen in hand，and took a stab at giving my answers：A，or B，or C，or D.The next week Ms.Chen returned our papers，with a big“Excellent”down on mine.That meant only one thing—I had got the highest mark in the class.And I had.I had guessed nine of the ten correctly.Later Ms.Chen said to me that this just went to prove what I could do if I would only study.
Passage 2
I still remember what happened in the first class on my first day in primary school.I got up very early that morning and felt excited but a little nervous.I walked into the classroom alone.After a while a teacher came，wearing a new suit.When she sorted us into lines，she told us girls to stand on the right side and the boys on the left.I moved to the right，of course.But the teacher looked confused and said to me，“Boy，what do you mean，standing with the girls？”The class burst out laughing and I felt very embarrassed.Then the teacher looked at me closely and also laughed.Afterward a girl said that I was too tall and thin for a girl，and my hair was too short，too.She said that was why the teacher had taken me for a boy.That girl soon became my best friend.Later，I got the nickname“Tomboy”.
Passage 3
This was how Xiaolin and I became goods friends.It was the second week of my first year at middle school.One day，the last class was over；it was raining cats and dogs，I was standing at the school gate waiting for the rain to stop.I had no umbrella，no rain coat with me.I was wondering how long I would have to wait，I saw a girl carrying a red umbrella coming along.She was a classmate of mine.I didn’t know her name.She stopped before me and said，“Hi，I’m Lin Yuqing.Let’s share this umbrella.I think we are going in the same direction.”With these words she pulled me under the umbrella，and we left our school.The umbrella was not big enough for two of us，soon we got wet.Her kindness warmed my heart.That unforgettable experience was the beginning of a friendship that has lasted for six years.
Analysis
Passage 1
A good narrative paragraph：
—It is complete with a beginning，middle and end.
—It makes a point：how MS.Chen misunderstood the situation.
—All the details relate to the point of the message.
—The passage is well connected by linking words：so，and，later，etc.
Passage 2
Needs to be improved：
—It is complete with a beginning，middle and end.
—It makes a point：how the writer got her nickname“Tomboy”.
—It includes details that don’t relate to the point of the paragraph.They are：
“I got up very early that morning and felt excited but a little nervous.I walked into the classroom alone.After a while a teacher came，wearing a new suit.”
“That girl soon became my best friend.”
—The passage is well connected by linking words：but，and，then and later.
An improved version：
I still remember what happened in the first class on my first day in primary school.When a teacher came into the classroom，she sorted us into lines.She told us girls to stand on the right side and the boys on the left.I moved to the right，of course.But the teacher looked confused and said to me，“Boy，what do you mean，standing with the girls？”The class burst out laughing and I felt very embarrassed.Then the teacher looked at me closely and also laughed.Afterward a girl said that I was too tall and thin for a girl，and my hair was too short，too.She said that was why the teacher had taken me for a boy.Later，I got the nickname“Tomboy”.
Passage 3
Needs to be improved：
It is complete with a beginning，middle and end.
It makes a point：how the writer and the classmate became good friends.
All the details that relate to the point the writer makes in the paragraph.
The passage lacks smooth transition to connect the sentences.
An improved version：
I still remember how Xiaolin and I became goods friends.It was the second week of my first year at middle school.One day，when the last class was over，it was raining cats and dogs.I was standing at the school gate waiting for the rain to stop.I had neither an umbrella nor a rain coat with me.I was wondering how long I would have to wait when I saw a girl carrying a red umbrella coming along.She was a classmate of mine，but I didn’t know her name.She stopped before me and said，“Hi，I’m Lin Yuqing.Let’s share this umbrella.I think we are going in the same direction.”With these words，she pulled me under the umbrella，and we left our school.The umbrella was not big enough for two of us，so soon we got wet.But her kindness warmed my heart.That unforgettable experience was the beginning of a friendship that has lasted for six years.
Ⅱ．How to Write a Descriptive Paragraph？（描写文)
1．What is a descriptive paragraph？
A descriptive paragraph colorfully describes a person，event or object with enough details for the reader to visualize it.——A verbal picture！！
Sample
Watson and the Shark is a painting by John Singleton Copely.In the foreground of the painting，one naked man is being attacked by a huge gray shark in the cold and choppy seawater.One small overloaded rowboat is near the naked man and the frightening shark.There are nine horrified men in this rowboat，who are trying to rescue the naked man.One young man takes a long spear and wants to kill the shark.Some people are reaching for his hand，and some are throwing a rope for him to catch.In the background of the painting，under the dark and cloudy sky，there are many ships stopping in the stormy harbor.The whole painting makes people feel tension and fear.
2.Types of descriptions
subjective description：description of the subject √
reaction to the subject√
objective description：description of the subject√
reaction to the subject×
3.Purpose of descriptions
—The purpose of descriptive writing is to make our readers see，feel，and hear what we have seen，felt，and heard.
—Whether we are describing a person，a place，or a thing，our aim is to reveal a subject through vivid and carefully selected details.
4.Two common methods of ordering details in descriptive writing
—Spatial arrangement：（organize details according to their physical location）
—Least/most arrangement：（organize details in increasing or decreasing order，according to some quality or characteristic，such as importance）
5.Elements of an effective descriptive paragraph
Topic Sentence
—Supporting Sentences
—Sensory Description
—Unification
—Coherency
Sensory Description：Sensory description are words or phrases that allow the reader to form a picture in his head.While these additions can make any piece of writing more colorful，they are absolutely paramount in a descriptive paragraph.The most effective descriptive paragraphs appeal to multiple senses，allowing readers to feel as if they are experiencing the described object for themselves instead of just reading about your experience.
Five senses
Sample
Telling：The room was vacant.
Showing：The door opened with a resounding echo that seemed to fill the house.Cob webs once attached flowed freely in the air as the open door brought light to a well worn floor.The light gave notice to the peeling paint on the walls and to the silhouettes once covered by pictures.The new air gave life to a stuffiness that entrapped the room.Eaded and torn white sheets covered once new furniture now drowning in dust.
Unification：A descriptive paragraph must be unified to be effective.Eor a paragraph to be unified，it must be centered around one main idea instead of encompassing an assortment of concepts.
Coherency：To effectively communicate meaning，a descriptive paragraph must be coherent.If a paragraph lacks coherency，readers will not be able to understand the information you are trying to convey.——Use Transitional Words：
—Common spatial arrangement transitions：above，below，beside，in front of，inside，outside，next to，behind，nearby，on the other hand，beneath，to the west，etc.
—Common least/most Arrangement transitions：Most important，Particularly important，Especially，Above all，Even more，Best of all.
6.Tips for writing effective descriptive paragraph
—Use one dominant impression.
—Use specific adjectives，adverbs，and vivid verbs，consistent with the dominant impression.
—Through the impressions of one’s senses.
—Use transitional words.
—Try moving your reader through space and time chronologically.
Sample 1
—The beach was deserted.
—The remote，rocky，windswept beach was deserted.
—The applicant greeted the job interviewer.
—The nervous，insecure applicant greeted the cool，polished job interviewer.A Description of Mr.Scrooge in A Christmas Carol
——Specific adjectives
Sample 2
The cold within him froze his old features，nipped his pointed nose，shriveled his cheek，stiffened his gait；made his eyes red，his thin lips blue；and spoke out shrewdly in his grating voice.
——Vivid verbs
Sample 3
John Fante Ask the Dust
In silence we reached the Palisades，driving along the crest of the high cliffs overlooking the sea.A cold wind sideswiped us.The jalopy teetered.Erom below rose the roar of the sea.Ear out fog-banks crept toward the land，an army of ghosts crawling on their bellies.Below us the breakers flayed the land with white fists.They retreated and came back to flay it again.As each breaker retreated，the shoreline broke into an ever-widening grin.We coasted in second down the spiral road，the black pavement perspiring，fog tongues licking it.The air was so clean.We breathed it gratefully.There was no dust here.
Ⅲ.How to Write an Opinion Paragraph？（议论文)
1．What is an opinion paragraph？
An opinion paragraph is one written about your point of view on somebody or something.This paragraph can contain things you think is real，does not have to be facts.
2.Three sections in an opinion paragraph—Topic sentence
—Supporting sentences—Concluding sentence（1）Topic sentence
What is a topic sentence？
The topic sentence is the first sentence in a paragraph.What does it do？
It introduces the main ideaof the paragraph.
How do I write one？
Summarize the main idea of your paragraph.Indicate to the reader what your paragraph will be about.Sample
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world.
Eirst，Canada has an excellent health care system.All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price.Second，Canada has a high standard of education.Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.Einally，Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed.Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live.As a result，Canada is a desirable place to live.(www.xing528.com)
（2）Supporting details
What are supporting sentences？
They come after the topic sentence，making up the body of a paragraph.What do they do？
They give details to develop and support the main idea of the paragraph.How do you write them？
You should give supporting facts，details，and examples.Sample
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world.Eirst，Canada has an excellent health care system.All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price.Second，Canada has a high standard of education.Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.Einally，Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed.Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live.As a result，Canada is a desirable place to live.
（3）Closing sentence
What is a closing sentence？
A closing sentence is the last sentence in a paragraph.What does it do？
It restates the main idea of your paragraph.
How do you write it？
Restate the main idea of the paragraph using different words.Sample
There are three reasons why Canada is one of the best countries in the world.Eirst，Canada has an excellent health care system.All Canadians have access to medical services at a reasonable price.Second，Canada has a high standard of education.Students are taught by well-trained teachers and are encouraged to continue studying at university.Einally，Canada’s cities are clean and efficiently managed.Canadian cities have many parks and lots of space for people to live.As a result，Canada is a desirable place to live.
3.Three steps in writing a paragraph
—Prewriting the paragraph
—Writing the paragraph
—Editing the paragraph
（1）Prewriting the paragraph
What is the prewriting stage？
The prewriting stage is when you think carefully and organize your ideas for your paragraph before you begin writing.
Six prewriting steps：
A.Think carefully about what you are going to write.
Ask yourself：What question am I going to answer in this paragraph or essay？How can I best answer this question？What is the most important part of my answer？How can I make an introductory sentence（or thesis statement）from the most important part of my answer？What facts or ideas can I use to support my introductory sentence？How can I make this paragraph or essay interesting？Do I need more facts on this topic？Where can I find more facts on this topic？
B.Open your notebook.
Write out your answers to the above questions.You do not need to spend a lot of time doing this；just write enough to help you remember why and how you are going to write your paragraph or essay.
C.Collect facts related to your paragraph or essay topic.
Look for and write down facts that will help you to answer your question.Timesaving hint：make sure the facts you are writing are related to the exact question you are going to answer in your paragraph or essay.
D.Write down your own ideas.
Ask yourself：What else do I want to say about this topic？Why should people be interested in this topic？Why is this topic important？
E.Find the main idea of your paragraph or essay.
Choose the most important point you are going to present.If you cannot decide which point is the most important，just choose one point and stick to it throughout your paragraph or essay.
F.Organize your facts and ideas in a way that develops your main idea.
Once you have chosen the most important point of your paragraph or essay，you must find the best way to tell your reader about it.Look at the facts you have written.Look at your own ideas on the topic.Decide which facts and ideas will best support the main idea of your paragraph.Once you have chosen the facts and ideas you plan to use，ask yourself which order to put them in the paragraph.Write down your own note set that you can use to guide yourself as you write your paragraph or essay.
（2）Writing the paragraph
What is the writing stage？
The writing stage is when you turn your ideas into sentences.
Five writing steps：
A.Open your notebook and word processor.
B.Write the topic sentence，supporting sentences，and closing sentence.
C.Write clear and simple sentences to express your meaning.
D.Eocus on the main idea of your paragraph.
E.Use the dictionary to help you find additional words to express your ideas.
（3）Editing the paragraph
What is the editing stage？
The editing stage is when you check your paragraph for mistakes and correct them.
Grammar and spelling：
A.Check your spelling.
B.Check your grammar.
C.Read your essay again.
D.Make sure each sentence has a subject.
E.See if your subjects and verbs agree with each other.
E.Check the verb tenses of each sentence.
G.Make sure that each sentence makes sense.
Style and organization：
A.Make sure your paragraph has a topic sentence.
B.Make sure your supporting sentences focus on the main idea.
C.Make sure you have a closing sentence.
D.Check that all your sentences focus on the main idea.
E.See if your paragraph is interesting.
Sample
The writing process of an opinion paragraph
Ⅳ.How to Write an Expositione Essay？（说明文)
1．What is an exposition essay？
An expository essay is a specific type of writing that involves providing the reader with factual information，explaining a topic，or defining a particular term.
2.Requirements that a good exposition essay should meet：
It must be written from a neutral point-of-view and without emotion，since an espository essay is meant to provide the reader with factual information.
It should be written in third person，which means the article should not contain the word“I”or sentences such as“in my opinion”.
It should explore and discuss a single topic in a thorough way without presenting any specific argument or interpretation.Your thesis should be based purely on factual information that you present in the body of your essay.
It should be clear，concise，and coherent.Information in expository writing is arranged in a clear progression.
It often contain analogies，statistics，examples，comparisions and illustrations to help the readers understand what be being presented.
3.Study the following two exposition paragraphs and decide whether they meet the guidelines or not.
（1）The Boston Tea Party was the most important act of civil disobedience in the American colony because it protested unjust taxation without representation and was therefore the main cause of the Revolutionary War.（Too much）
（2）The Boston Tea Party was a significant act of civil disobedience that galvanized Americans around the issue of taxation without representation and helped spark the Revolutionary War.（Just right）
4.Three parts of an exposition essay
Usually，an expository essay is structured in three parts.
The first is the introduction，which contains the thesis statement.Be sure the thesis statement expresses a controlling idea that is neither too broad nor too specific to be developed effectively.
The next two or three body paragraphs each develop a separate point to support the thesis，and provide factual examples and information.Remember，each supporting paragraph should have a strong logical connection to the thesis statement.This helps the readers’understanding of the material.
The fifth and final paragraph is the conclusion，which ties the body paragraphs together and sums up the essay.Since the content is factual，you will need to write in the third person only from the beginnning to the end.
5.Four steps of writing an exposition essay
（1）Selecting a topic
If the professor assigns you a specific topic to write about，then this step is completed before you even begin.However，often the teacher will allow students to choose their own essay topic，so it is important to be able to choose effectively.This is also true is the professor proposed a broad topic，but demands that you write about a particular facet of that larger subject.
Whenever choosing an exposition essay topic，it is important to narrow down your choice so that it is appropriate to the essay length requirements.Eor example，if the professor has assigned a two-page essay，it is not a good idea to choose an expansive topic such as“The History of the Civil War.”There would simply not be enough room within two pages to adequately cover the topic.Conversely，if the professor wants an especially lengthy essay，do not choose too narrow of a topic so that it becomes difficult to fill up the pages with information.
（2）Choosing a developmental pattern
There are a variety of ways to develop a custom expository essay，just as there is a variety of ways to convey information.The following are just a few examples of the developmental patterns you can adopt for your own essay：
Definition—This may be the most straightforward of the developmental patterns.As its name suggests，you will simply use the expository essay to thoroughly define a topic.
Example—In this developmental pattern，you will provide and describe an example of a particular subject or group.
Cause and effect—With this developmental pattern，you will illustrate the relationship between to variables，one dependent on the other.Describe the many ways in which this particular variable affects the other，and explain why it does so.
Classification—This developmental pattern is used to categorize multiple subjects into separate or distinct groups by certain criteria.
Compare and contrast—With this developmental pattern，the writer will examine both the similarities and the differences between two or more distinct subjects.
（3）Choose an organizational pattern
The choice of organizational pattern really depends upon the length of the essay.Eor shorter essays，teachers often espouse the“five paragraph”organizational pattern，in which there is one introductory paragraph，three body paragraphs，and a concluding paragraph.Of course，this is not feasible if the essay is of longer length，but it is important to provide both an introduction and a conclusion，regardless of length.
（4）Perform adequate research of the topic
Too often students begin writing expository essays without first having learned about their subject.If the teacher requires you to write the essay with knowledge from the top of your head，then obviously you will not have to perform research.However，if this is not the case then it is vital that you take some time to learn about your topic before beginning to write.Doing so will only lead to a much stronger essay.
Sample
A Brief Introduction to the University
Distinguished guests，
Welcome to our university.Before you start to look around，allow me to give you a brief account of the school.
Eounded in 1927，our university is one of this city’s earliest universities of liberal arts.It is staffed with an excellent faculty，and has a total enrollment of over 10 000 students.In the past years，it has turned out numerous well-qualified students and found its graduates active in professions of all walks of life.
Since its establishment，the university has always steered itself toward the objective that its students have an overall healthy development.Not only does it provide the students with basic academic courses，but it manages to expose them to the up-to-date knowledge.Besides，students are free to participate in colorful campus activities and social practice，which are intended for broadening their mind and developing their potential talent.
Currently，both our faculty and students are making every effort to improve the quality of our university.
本节探讨了四种常用文体的写作教学，关于应用文的写作教学详见第六章的应用文写作教学案例部分。综上可见，体裁法的核心思想是以交际为目的，它使某类语篇具有大致相同的图式结构，而这种图式结构影响着语篇的内容和语言风格的选择。例如记叙文和议论文具有不同的交际目的，他们各自的图式结构决定了各自的语篇内容和语言选择的不同。另外，体裁具有制约性、重复性、常规性、程序性、习惯性等特点。值得注意的是，体裁的常规性并不是一成不变的。由于文化因素或语篇变量的不同，属于同一体裁的语篇之间存在差异，人们可以在不破坏体裁基本结构的原则下发挥自己的创造力。(秦秀白，2000)
同时必须意识到，体裁教学法仍存在一些不足之处:体裁的规约性可能导致教学活动陷于呆板和枯燥之中，学生写作千篇一律的现象;容易造成以语篇为中心的课堂教学倾向，教师容易偏重对语篇的描述和复制，忽略学生的创造性写作活动的开展;由于体裁种类繁杂，课堂教学难以穷尽学生将来可能遇到的所有体裁;对写作技巧不够重视。
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