身体活动影响因素的识别和验证正是为了后续的预防和控制身体活动不足提供科学的参考依据,也是身体活动流行病学研究的落脚点。身体活动不足的预防和干预应该以学校为中心,将学生、教师和家长共同纳入可持续发展的行动计划之中。但是学校里繁重的课业负担影响了学生的身体活动时间及其健康效益。因此,学校作为儿童青少年活动最为集中、与他人交往互动最为频繁的场所,应该是儿童青少年健康行动计划的主要阵地。
(一)基于身体活动的全员一体化实施框架
1999年,GregoryWelk[69]在社会生态学理论基础上提出了“青少年身体活动促进模型”(Youth Physical Activity Promotion Model,YPAPM),通过个体(内部)与环境(外部)的多方面因素来分析青少年的身体活动行为,进而提供有针对性的运动处方和指导方案(见图2.1)。Ridgers对英格兰儿童的研究发现[70],运动过程中良好的个人体验以及家庭和学校提供的支持环境是影响孩子身体活动的关键因素,而家长陪伴孩子一起运动可以提高他们积极的运动体验,进而提升孩子的身体活动水平以及自主运动的行为习惯。而学校是否提供灵活、充分的活动空间和设施也是影响学生活动行为的因素之一。活动设施和活动空间的缺乏影响学生课间活动的活跃程度,也反映出了整体身体活动水平较低的行为模式特征。Hammonds发现,儿童在校内期间低强度活动或久坐不动的时间高达91%,远远达不到每天60分钟MVPA的建议标准(MVPA=32.2分钟/天)[71]。
图2.1 青少年身体活动促进模型
2013年,美国医学研究所发布的报告《Educating the students body:Taking physical activity and physical education to school》[72],首次提出了“学校一体化的解决路径(A Whole-of-School Approach)”,强调学校应建立全面的支持性系统,将儿童青少年的身体活动水平置于整个学校背景之下进行综合考虑,使学校各个学科的教师和职能部门乃至周围环境,都一起学习和营造促进身体活动的学习、生活环境,因为孩子的健康从来都不只是学校体育的事情,也需要教育和卫生部门的参与。儿童青少年的健康本身就是由复杂的个人和社会因素共同影响的,所以任何单方面措施的干预效果可能都不够理想,尤其是对于促进学生健康水平及其活动行为的可持续发展,需要协调多个方面的资源和力量,形成以学校为核心,辐射周边的学生健康促进共同体。而该一体化的解决路径需要政策、资金等各方面的支持为健康行动计划方案保驾护航,从而形成整个学校共同参与的一体化的支持环境[73](见图2.2)。
经过“学校一体化的解决路径”10个月的活动干预,计步器记录的数据显示,对照组增加了1 527步/天,但是显著低于干预组增加的3 059步/天[74],融合了政策、制度、环境以及课程的一体化的健康解决路径,有效提升了学生的MVPA水平[75]。教师的教学内容有学科划分,但是学生的健康不分学科、不分职能,每个个体都是学校应该关注的对象,而学校的全员参与构建和实施学校一体化解决路径的关键所在。其中,培训普通教师使其具备帮助学生改善健康水平的意识、方法和能力是一项关键任务,使得一体化解决路径形成一个完整的闭环。但是,全员参与下的教师是否具备足够的责任意识,是否认为超出了正常的工作范畴[76],是否有效、准确的落实行动计划方案,都是该一体化路径需要时刻考察的问题。
图2.2 学校一体化解决路径
(二)基于身体活动的学校综合性干预措施
1991年,Robert和Sonja设计和实施了儿童青少年心血管健康试验研究项目(Children and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health,CATCH),主要包含身体活动和营养膳食两大内容,同时还涉及了教育政策、学校环境、行动计划等具体措施,在96所学校进行了长达3年的试验,也是当时美国最大的一项学校健康促进项目[77]。CATCH明确提出了50%以上MVPA水平的体育课运动负荷要求,同时通过课外体育作业和宣传讲解的手段提出校外期间身体活动和营养膳食的建议和要求,这些举措都显著地提升了儿童青少年体育课和每天整体的MVPA水平[78][79]。更令人欣喜的是,试验结束后的追踪调查显示,经过3年之后参与实验的学生仍然具有较高的日常身体活动水平[80],表明通过身体活动和营养膳食构建的整体学校环境有助于学生形成积极运动和营养饮食的良好习惯[81]。目前,CATCH更名为“Coordinated Approach to Child Health”以提升专业化的儿童健康服务,新的CATCH包含有“教学方法”“体育课”“营养服务”和“家庭环境”四大方面内容,为促进儿童青少年健康生活方式的养成提供整体性的解决方案。
2008年,美国疾控中心推出了学校综合性身体活动项目(Comprehensive School Physical Activity Programs,CSPAP)[82],是以促进学生身体活动为核心的多元化的健康解决方案,强调增加学生日常活动的机会,帮助他们达到60分钟/天的MVPA推荐标准,最终促进其养成热爱运动的生活方式。CSPAP的行动计划由五大方面构成:高质量的体育课、校内身体活动、校外身体活动、教师全员参与、家庭、社区配合(见图2.3)[83]。CSPAP能够显著提升学生在校内身体活动水平,尤其是课间的身体活动水平增长比较明显,校内期间步行总步数的44%都来自课间活动,并且久坐时间也得有效的遏制[84][85]。
图2.3 学校综合性身体活动项目
2012年,欧盟委员会组织发起了欧洲青少年能量平衡与抗击肥胖研究项目(European Energy balance Research to prevent excessive weight Gain among Youth,ENERGY)[86],旨在抗击儿童青少年的肥胖流行性问题,借此改善其积极、健康的行为模式,是欧洲各国共同向儿童青少年肥胖问题发起的“挑战”。ENERGY强调学校和家庭对于儿童青少年健康行为的共同影响作用,从能量平衡的视角出发设计和实施培养积极生活方式的干预方案。其中,“UP 4 FUN”是一项专门性的健康教育行动计划,通过6周时间向10~12岁的儿童青少年开展以身体活动与抗击肥胖为主题的健康教育,帮助他们建立身体活动和久坐行为的认知体系,并通过自己、学校、家庭的共同约束而减少甚至消除学校或家庭学习生活中的久坐行为[87]。
ENERGY项目中,家长对孩子运动锻炼的支持态度和自身的运动行为表现都是孩子身体活动行为的影响因素,尤其反映了母亲的身体活动水平对子女身体活动的影响要大于父亲[88]。因此。学校和家庭联合打造共同的身体活动支持环境是ENERGY项目的核心,尤其强调改善父母的行为和态度以此促进孩子身体活动水平的提升。
“Let's Move”项目是由前美国第一夫人米歇尔·奥巴马发起创立的一项旨在增进学生健康的全国行动计划,而活力校园项目(Let's Move!Active Schools,LMAS)是其中的重要组成部分[89]。LMAS提供了校内外体育活动的综合性解决方案,帮助学生满足60分钟/天MVPA的国家建议标准。LMAS的主体内容分为四大方面:体育课(总统青年体能项目)、校内身体活动(动起来;课间活动计划)、校外身体活动(体育铸就成功;课外体育活动)、家庭/社区参与(走路/骑车上下学;积极生活方式奖)和教职工参与(身体活动专业培训;健康体能卡片)。由此可见,LMAS也非常强调学生、体育教师、普通任课教师、校长和学生家长共同参与到“活力校园”的创建之中,通过全方位的资源整合最大化地使学生从中受益。LMAS的签约实验学校已达到50 000所,覆盖了全美的各个地区。
通过梳理国外儿童青少年身体活动研究发现,活力校园、运动是良医、为动而生、总统挑战杯等健康促进行动计划层出不穷[90]。一方面,都强调学生、学校和家庭的综合干预,不再从单一维度来应用和解决学生的健康问题;另一方面,在各类健康行动计划中,儿童青少年的身体活动不足和肥胖率的改善都是主要的研究目标或者需要解决的核心问题。社会资源的优化配置有助于形成学校、家庭和社会的多元联动机制,将这些要素和资源纳入服务于学生健康成长的框架体系之中,进而提供系统性、持续性的身体活动社会支持。体育课可能是每个学生从小学到高中甚至到大学都共同参与的特殊的活动形式,除了教授基本运动技战术能力,更要承担着引导学生感受积极的运动体验,感知体育文化的功能,以及形成自主锻炼的行为习惯,这些身体活动、运动锻炼的理念应该始终渗透在学校环境的各个角落之中。要达到每天60分钟MVPA的建议标准,仅仅依靠体育课是远远做不到的。对于学龄儿童,学校的学习生活仅是每天时间中很有限的一部分,而更应该关注他们在校内外课余时间的活动行为或活动状态。因此,健康的生活方式是促进和保持儿童青少年身心健康发展的根本保障,这也是身体活动流行病学研究的重要内容之一,而个人、家庭和社会的因素在儿童青少年的生活方式养成中分别扮演重要角色,这正是本书所关注的身体活动水平的流行性调查需要解决的问题之一。
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