在过去150年里,煤炭对美国很重要。最初煤炭为工业革命提供燃料,现在煤炭产生了美国近50%的电力。但是,由于在煤炭的整个燃料周期中存在的对环境、健康和安全的危害,煤炭的未来面临重重困难。这些困难不仅限于国内对煤的生产和使用方面的问题,燃煤发电厂也带来了全球气候变化这一国际问题。
煤炭燃烧所引起的污染,是煤炭行业与环境保护主义者之间就是否继续扩大使用煤炭发电的争执点。双方争执的主战场仍是《清洁空气法》。目前,达成的共识是应采用更清洁的燃煤技术。能源部也支持这一观点,见能源部化石能源办公室发布的《21世纪展望计划:21世纪的清洁能源发电厂》[76]。
根据该计划,未来的发电厂应消除由燃烧化石燃料造成的环境问题。对二氧化硫、一氧化氮和汞等污染物的排放水平应接近于零。这些发电厂的另一技术目标是最大限度地提高效率,以降低二氧化碳的排放。由于采用更先进的技术,这些发电厂在提高发电和生产蒸汽效率的同时,也生产高附加值的化学品。为了达到这些目的,能源部也已经在实施上述洁净煤计划。
虽然使用煤炭会造成环境问题,但由于煤炭储量丰富、美国依赖国外石油和核能前景不明朗等因素,即便是煤炭的使用不再增加,煤炭很可能会维持其目前在美国能源行业中的地位。美国煤炭协会(NCC)是能源部的联邦顾问机构;这是一个很大的行业机构,其成员来自代表多方利益的公共和私人机构;其职能是应能源部部长的请求,为煤炭的利用和煤炭行业提供意见和建议。该协会发表的报告也支持了煤炭将持久作为主要燃料的观点。
美国煤炭协会在其最近的报告中指出:(1)煤炭储量超过石油和天然气的5到10倍;(2)自1973年起,煤炭产量增加了近两倍,从5.99亿吨增加到11.5亿吨;(3)煤炭发电占全美发电总量的50%;(4)在同等能量基础上,煤炭价格是石油或天然气价格的十分之一到五分之一;(5)煤炭是美国唯一的净出口化石燃料。
美国煤炭协会还指出,世界和美国的煤炭消费量均正在增加。美国人口如今已经超过3亿人,并将在2030年达到3.65亿人。煤炭作为一种便宜并且丰富的能源资源,将是满足未来众多人口能源需求的重要保证。[77]
【注释】
[1]译者注:Barbara Freese,Coal:A Human history(2003).该书中译本见弗里兹《煤与人类的历史》,时娜译,中信出版社2005年版。
[2]译者注:即让煤室顶部塌落。
[3]Richard Bonskowski,The U.S.Coal Industry in the 1990’s:Low Prices and Record Prodcution(September1999).
[4]National Academy of Sciences,National Research Council,Making the Nation Safer:The Role of Science and Technology in Countering Terrorism(2002).
[5]Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1997,30 U.S.C.§801.
[6]Mininal Lands Leasing Act of 1920,30 U.S.C§§181 etc.
[7]The Federal Coal Leasing Amendments Act of 1976,30 U.S.C§§351.etc.
[8]The Federal Land Policy and Management Act of 1976,43 U.S.C§§1701-1782.
[9]30 U.S.C§§201-210.
[10]43 U.S.C§1701(a).
[11]43 C.F.R§3809.1.
[12]Energy Supply and Environmental Coordination Act of 1974,15 U.S.C§§791 etc.
[13]Powerplant and Industrial Fuel Use Act of 1978,42 U.S.C§§8301-8484(1982).
[14]Federal Coal Mine Safety Act,30 U.S.C§§451 etc.
[15]Federal Coal Mine Health and Safety Act of 1969,scattered in U.S.C.15 to 20.
[16]Federal Mine Safety and Health Amendments Act of 1977.
[17]Black Lung Benefits Act o 1972,30 U.S.C.§§901 etc.
[18]Coal Industry Retiree Health Benefits Act of 1992,26 U.S.C.§§9701-9722.
[19]Usery v.Turner Elkhorn Mining Co.(S.Ct.1976).
[20]Eastern Enterprises v.Apfel(S.Ct.1998).
[21]Anker Energy Corp.v.Consolidated Coal Co.(3rd Cir.1999).
[22]National Coal Ass’n v.Chater(11th Cir.1996).
[23]Holland v.New Era Coal Co.(6th Cir.1999).
[24]The Pittston Co.v.United States(4th Cir.1999).
[25]65 Fed.Reg.79,920-80,107(Dec.20,2000).
[26]National Mining Ass’n v.Department of Labor(D.C.Cir.2002).
[27]Donovan v.Dewey(S.Ct.1981).
[28]30 U.S.C.§811(a)(6)(A)(1982).
[29]Resource Conservation and Recovery Act of 1976,42 U.S.C.§§6901-6987.
[30]Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977,30 U.S.C.§§1201-1328.
[31]Hodel v.Virginia Surface Mining&Reclamation Ass’n Inc.(S.Ct.1981).
[32]Hodel v.Indiana(S.Ct.1981).
[33]Whitney Benefits,Inc.v.United States(Fed.Cir.1991).
[34]National Mining Ass’n v.Department of Interior(D.C.Cir 1999).
[35]Haydo v.Amerikohl Mining,Inc.(3rd Cir,1997).
[36]Save Our Cumberland Mountains,Inc.v.Watt(D.D.C 1982).(www.xing528.com)
[37]Save Our Cumberland Mountains,Inc.v.Clark(D.C.Cir 1982).
[38]Save Our Cumberland Mountains,Inc.v.Hodel(D.C.Cir 1987).
[39]Bragg v.Robertson(S.D.W.Va.1999).
[40]Bragg v.West Virginia Coal Ass’n(4th Cir.2001).
[41]译者注:美国陆军工程兵团(又称美国陆军工兵队、美国陆军工程师兵团等,文为United States Army Corps of Engineers,简称USACE)是隶属于美国联邦政府和美国军队的机构,一共有30000多文职人员和600多军人,是世界最大的公共工程设计和建筑管理机构。
[42]Ohio Valley Envt'l Coalition v.Aracoma Coal Co.,567 F.3d 177(4th Cir.2009).
[43]Commonwealth v.Riverburgh,317 F.3d 425(4th Cir.2003);Sandra Zimmer,CPR Perspective:Mountaintop Removal,36 Columbia J.of Envt’l L.163(2011).
[44]Clean Air Task Force,The Toll From Coal:An Updated Assesment of Death And Disease From America's Dirtiest Energy Source(September 2010)Available At Http://Www.Catf.Us/Resources/Publications/Files/The_Tollfrom_Coal.Pdf;See Also Environmental Health&Engineering,Emissions Of Hazardous Air Pollutants From Coal-Fired Power Plants(March 7,2011)available at http://vvww.lungusa.org/assets/documents/healthyair/coal-fired-plant-hazards.pdf.
[45]The Clean Air Act,42 U.S.C.§§7401 etc.
[46]Ariz.Pub Sera.Co.v.EPA,562 F.3d 936(9th Cir.2009);New Jersey v.Reliant Energy Mid Atlantic Power Holdings,2009 WL 32344.38(E.D.Pa.2009);United States v.Cinergy Corp.,618 F.Supp.942(S.D.Ind.2009);Southern Alliance for Clean Energy,Envt’l Def.Fund.v.Duke Energy Carolinas,LLC,2009 WL 2767128(W.D.N.C.2009);Sierra Club v.Duke Energy,Ind.,Inc.,2009 WL 363174(S.D.Ind.2009).
[47]Sierra Club v.Costle(D.C.Cir.1981).
[48]Generally Arnold W.Reitze,JR.,Air Pollution Control Law:Compliance and Enforcement(2nd Ed.2010).
[49]Wisconsin Electric Power Co.v.Reilly(7th Cir.1990),本书作者之一卡达希为该案主审法官。
[50]Robert J.Martineau,Jr.&Michael K.Stagg,New Source Review Reform:A New Year’s Eve to Remember,Natural Resources and Environment 3(Winter 2004).
[51]New Jersey v.EPA,517 F.3d 574(D.C.Cir.2008).
[52]EPA,Reducing Toxic Air Emission From Power Plants,available at http://www.epa.gov/airquality/powerplanttoxics/;USEPA,Fact Sheet:Proposed Mercury and Air Toxic Standards available at http://www.epa.gov/airquality/powerplanttoxics/.
[53]National Academy Of Sciences Et Al.,America's Energy Future:Technology And Transformation(2009);John Deutch&Ernest J.Moniz,The Future Of Coal:Options For A Carbon-Constrained World:An Interdisciplinary Mit Study(2007).
[54]http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/releases/2002/02/print/clearskies.html.
[55]译者注:该计划原文为“2023年”,原书中的“2003年”应为笔误。
[56]US DOE,Program Facts:Clean Coal Power Initiative(CCPI)(October 2008)available at http://www.fossil.energy.gov/programs/powersystems/cleancoal/ccpi/Prog052.pdf.
[57]National Mining Association,The U.S.Department of Energy's Clean Coal Technology:From Research to Reality available at http://fossil.energy.gov/aboutus/fe_cleancoal_brochure_web2.pdf.
[58]Burlington Northern Inc.,v.United States(S.Ct.1982).
[59]Northern Pacific Railway Co.,v.North Dakota(S.Ct.1915).
[60]Railroad Revitalization and Regulatory Reform Act of 1976(4-R Act),Pub.L.No.94-210,90 Stat.31.
[61]49 U.S.C.§10701(a)(b).
[62]49 U.S.C.§10704(a)(2).
[63]Staggers Rail Act of 1980,49 U.S.C.§10101 etc.
[64]Energy Transportation Systems,Inc.v.Union Pacific Railroads Co.(10th Cir.1979).
[65]Mont.Code Annot.§§85-2-104(1979).
[66]Sporhase v.Nebraska(S.Ct.1982).
[67]Missouri v.Andrews(8th Cir.1986).
[68]译者注:英亩英尺是灌溉上的水量单位,即底面积为1英亩,深度为1英尺的水量。
[69]Energy Transportation Systems,Inc.Pipeline Project v.Missouri,484 U.S.495(S.Ct.1988).
[70]Alliance for Clean Coal v.Miller(7th Cir.1995).
[71]Intergovernmental Panel On Climate Change,Climate Change 2007:SYNTHESIS REPORT 30(2007);National Aeronautics and Space Administration,2009:Second Warmest Year on Record;End of Warmest Decade(January 2010)available at http://www.nasa.gov/topics/earth/features/temp-analysis-2009.html.
[72]Nicholas Stern,The Economics of Climate Change:The Stern Review 3(2007).
[73]译者注:1 ppm为百万分之一。
[74]United Nations Framework Conversion on Climate Change,UNFCCC,availiable at http://unfcc.int/resources/docs/convkp/conveng.pdf.
[75]National Energy Technology Laboratory,Tracking New Coal-Fired Power Plants(January 24,2011)available at http://www.netl.doe.gov/coal/refshelf/ncp.pdf.
[76]Vision 21 Program Plan:Clean Energy Plants for the 21st Century,April 1999.
[77]National Coal Council,The Global Realities of Energy available at http://www.nationalcoalcouncil.org/Documents/The_G1obal_Realities_of_Energy.pdf;National Coal Council,Coal:Energy Security for Our Ncation's Future available at http://wwvv.nationalcoalcouncil.org/Documents/Coa LEnergy_Security.pd#.
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