历经数百年的发展,特别是在第二次世界大战以后,随着多元文化主义和全纳教育思想的日渐兴盛,加拿大原住民教育发展迅速,取得了巨大的进步。但同时,原住民与非原住民的教育成就仍然存在较大差距。
2016年加拿大全国人口普查数据显示,在25至64岁的原住民中,43.6%具有中学后学历,2.6 %具有大学毕业证或结业证(但没有取得学士学位),10.9%具有学士或以上学位。相比之下,年龄在25至64岁的非原住民中,63.4%具有中学后学历,3.0%具有大学毕业证或结业证(但没有取得学士学位),29.3%具有学士或以上学位。在“没有证书、文凭或学位”方面,原住民和非原住民的比例也有差异。在25至64岁的原住民中,有31.2%“没有证书、文凭或学位”,而同年龄组的非原住民这一数据仅为12.9%。[67]那些完成了高中学业的原住民学生更倾向于继续完成他们的中学后教育。但由于居住地缺少必要的教育资源,许多原住民学生为了完成中学后教育不得不通过搬迁以获得更好的教育。而那些获得了学士学位的学生更是如此。
原住民各族群之间教育水平也存在差异。2016年加拿大人口普查数据显示,64.0%的第一民族、45.4%的因纽特人和77.3%的梅蒂斯人具有高中文凭或同等学力,他们被认为是高中学业完成者;39.6%的第一民族、27.0%的因纽特人和50.9%的梅蒂斯人具有中学后学历,即拥有高中以上水平的结业证、毕业证或学位证。[68]这些数据均与2012年加拿大原住民调查[69]报告的数据类似。总体而言,梅蒂斯人受教育程度略高于第一民族,因纽特人教育水平相对落后。
【注释】
[1]Statistics Canada.The 2016 Census of Population Program.Aboriginal Peoples Highlight Tables,2016 Census[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-20.
[2]Statistics Canada.The 2016 Census of Population Program.Aboriginal Peoples Highlight Tables,2016 Census[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-20.
[3]Statistics Canada.Aboriginal Peoples Reference Guide,Census of Population,2016[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2017-06-07.
[4]Statistics Canada.National Household Survey:Aboriginal Peoples[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-20.
[5]加拿大人口统计中对原住民身份的识别采用申报制,即统计对象自行就是否属于原住民进行报告。
[6]Statistics Canada.National Household Survey:Aboriginal Peoples[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-20.
[7]Statistics Canada.National Household Survey:Aboriginal Peoples[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-20.
[8]Statistics Canada.Census Program.Census in Brief:Diverse Family Characteristics of Aboriginal Children aged 0 to 4[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-20.
[9]Statistics Canada.Census Program.Data Tables,2016 Census.Labour Force Status(8)[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-21.
[10]Statistics Canada.Census Program.Date Tables,2016 Census,Aboriginal Identity(9)[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-21.
[11]Statistics Canada.The 2012 Aboriginal Peoples Survey[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2017-01-12.
[12]当一个族裔在一个公共机构所占比例明显高于其在总人口中的比例时,这一现象就被称为“过多代表”。
[13]Statistics Canada.The 2012 Aboriginal Peoples Survey[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2017-01-12.
[14]Statistics Canada.Census in Brief:The Housing Conditions of Aboriginal People in Canada[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-20.
[15]White,J.P.&Beavon,D.Aboriginal Education:Current Crisis,Future Alternatives[A]//White,J.P.,Peters,J.,Beavon,D.&Spence,N.(Eds.)Aboriginal Education:Current Crisis and Future Alternatives[C].Toronto,Ontario:Thompson Education Publishing,INC,2009:3.
[16]Claes,R.&Clifton,D.Needs and Expections for Redress of Victims of Abuse at Native Residential School[R].Ottawa:The Law Commission of Canada,1998:20.
[17]Jaenen,C.J.Education for Francization:The Case of New France in the Seventeenth Century[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.),Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:45-63.
[18]Jaenen,C.J.Education for Francization:The Case of New France in the Seventeenth Century[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.),Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:45-63.
[19]Magnuson,R.Education in New France[M].Montreal:McGill-Queen’s University Press,1992:17.
[20]Magnuson,R.Education in New France[M].Montreal:McGill-Queen’s University Press,1992:16-43.
[21]Magnuson,R.Education in New France[M].Montreal:McGill-Queen’s University Press,1992:45-46.
[22]Jaenen,C.J.Education for Francization:The Case of New France in the Seventeenth Century[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.),Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:45-63.
[23]Jaenen,C.J.Education for Francization:The Case of New France in the Seventeenth Century[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.),Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:45-63.
[24]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:39-60.
[25]Magnuson,R.Education in New France[M].Montreal:McGill-Queen’s University Press,1992:75-79.
[26]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:57-60.
[27]Wilson,D.J.No Blanket to be Worn in School:The Education of Indians in Nineteenth Century Ontario[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.),Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:64-87.
[28]Nock,D.A.A Victorian Missionary and Canadian Indian Policy:Cultural Synthesis vs Cultural Replacement[M].Waterloo:Wilfred Laurier University Press,1988:67-71.
[29]Wilson,Donald J.No Blanket to be Worn in School:The Education of Indians in Nineteenth Century Ontario[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.),Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:64-87.
[30]《印第安法》对村落社进行了如下定义:村落社是指满足下述三个条件的印第安人群体,即(a)在1951年9月4日之前或之后,加拿大政府(名义上为女王,下同)名下的土地划分出来由该群体共同使用,(b)由加拿大政府拨付资金用于该群体的共同利益,(c)并由枢密院总督为本法之目的宣布为“村落社”。
[31]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:61-83.
[32]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:85.
[33]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:82-88.(www.xing528.com)
[34]原名《对寄宿制学校的印第安人和混血儿的报告》,后人称为“戴维报告”,并被普遍认为其导致了加拿大寄宿学校体制的建立。
[35]Haig-Brown,C.Resistance and Renewal:Surviving the India Residential School[M].Vancouver:Arsenal Pulp Press,1988:30.
[36]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:101.
[37]White,J.P.&Peters,J.A Short History of Aborginal Education in Canada[A]//White,J.P.,Peters,J.,Beavon,D.&Spence,N.(Eds.)Aboriginal Education:Current Crisis and Future Alternatives[C].Toronto,Ontario:Thompson Education Publishing,INC.,2009:17.
[38]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:133.
[39]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:140.
[40]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:141-148.
[41]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:157.
[42]Barman,J.,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill.The Legacy of the Past:An Overview[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.),Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:1-22.
[43]Barman,J.,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill.The Legacy of the Past:An Overview[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.),Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:1-22.
[44]Miller,J.R.Shingwauk’s Vision:A History of Native Residential Schools[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,1996:151-182.
[45]Miller,J.R.Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens:A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada.3rd Edition[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,2000:389.
[46]Chrisjohn,R.and C.Belleau.Faith Misplaced:Lasting Effects of Abuse in a First Nations Community[J].Canadian Journal of Native Education,1991:18(2),161-197.
[47]Miller,J.R.Skyscrapers Hide the Heavens:A History of Indian-White Relations in Canada.3rd Edition[M].Toronto:University of Toronto Press,2000:324-326.
[48]Barman,J.,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill.The Legacy of the Past:An Overview[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.).Indian Education in Canada.Volume 1:The Legacy[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:1-22.
[49]Hawthorn,H.B.(Ed.).A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada:A Report on Economic,Political and Educational Needs and Policies.VolumeⅡ[R].Ottawa:Indian Affairs Branch,1967:89.https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca,2016-03-11.
[50]Aboriginal Healing Foundation.Directory of Residential Schools in Canada[R].Ottawa:Aboriginal Healing Foundation,2007:4-34.
[51]Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples.Report of the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples[R].Ottawa:Canada Communication Group Publishing,1996.
[52]Hawthorn,H.B.(Ed.).A Survey of the Contemporary Indians of Canada:A Report on Economic,Political and Educational Needs and Policies.VolumeⅡ[R].Ottawa:Indian Affairs Branch,1967:61-94.https://www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca,2016-03-11.
[53]Milloy,J.S.A National Crime:The Canadian Government and the Residential School System,1879-1986[M].Winnipeg:The University of Manitoba Press,1999:216-238.
[54]Agbo,S.A.Decentralization of First Nation Education in Canada:Perspective of Ideals and Realities of Indian Control of Indian Education[J].Interchange,2002(3):281-302.
[55]Longboat,D.First Nations Control of Education:The Path to Our Survival as Nations[A]//J.Barman,Y.Hebert and D.McCaskill(Eds.).Indian Education in Canada.Volume 2:The Challenge[C].Vancouver:University of British Columbia Press,1986:22-42.
[56]1975年印第安及北方事务部与加拿大政府签署的关于原住民赔偿的协议。按照协议规定,克里族和因纽特人转让出100万平方公里的土地,作为赔偿,他们取得了其社区周围地区13 700平方公里的单独控制权及在151 600平方公里内进行排他性狩猎、捕鱼的权利等。
[57]Abele,F.,C.Dittubrner and K.A.Graham.Towards a Shared Understanding in the Policy Discussion about Aboriginal Education[A]//M.B.Castellano,L.Davis and L.Lahache(Eds).Aboriginal Education:Fulfilling the Promise[C].Vancouver:UBC Press,2000:3-24.
[58]White,J.P.&Peters,J.A Short History of Aboriginal Education in Canada[A]//in White,J.P.&Peters,J.,Beavon,D.&Spence,N.(Eds.)Aboriginal Education:Current Crisis and Future Alternatives[C].Toronto,Ontario:Thompson Education Publishing,INC,2009:24.
[59]Abele,F.,Dittubrner,C.&Graham,K.A.Towards a Shared Understanding in the Policy Discussion about Aboriginal Education[A]//M.B.Castellano,L.Davis and L.Lahache(Eds),Aboriginal Education:Fulfilling the Promise[C].Vancouver:UBC Press,2000:3-24.
[60]MacPherson,J.MacPherson Report on Tradition and Education:Towards a Vision of Our Future[R].Ottawa:Department of India Affairs and Northern Development,1991:42.
[61]AFN.Tradition and Education:Towards a Vision of Our Future,A Declaration of First Nations Jurisdiction Over Education[R].Ottawa:Assembly of First Nations,1988:38.
[62]DIAND.The Government of Canada’s Approach to the Implement of the Inherent Right and the Negotiation of Aboriginal Self-Government[R].https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca,2016-11-15.
[63]White,J.P.&Peters,J.A Short History of Aboriginal Education in Canada[A]//White,J.P.,Peters,J.,Beavon,D.&Spence,N.(Eds.)Aboriginal Education:Current Crisis and Future Alternatives[C].Toronto,Ontario:Thompson Education Publishing,INC,2009:27.
[64]Auditor General of Canada.Indian and Northern Affairs Canada—Education and Secondary Education[R].Ottawa:Office of the Auditor General of Canada,2000:30.
[65]White,J.P.&Peters,J.A Short History of Aboriginal Education in Canada[A]//White,J.P.,Peters,J.,Beavon,D.&Spence,N.(Eds.)Aboriginal Education:Current Crisis and Future Alternatives[C].Toronto,Ontario:Thompson Education Publishing,INC,2009:28.
[66]2008年6月12日,时任加拿大总理哈珀在加拿大议会发表讲话,承认同化政策和原印第安人寄宿学校制度对原住民文化、传统和语言造成了严重伤害,并代表加拿大政府向原印第安寄宿学校的学生及其亲属正式表示道歉。
[67]Statistics Canada.Aboriginal Population Profile,2016 Census[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-21.
[68]Statistics Canada.Aboriginal Population Profile,2016 Census[R].https://www12.statcan.gc.ca,2019-04-21.
[69]原住民调查Aboriginal Peoples Survey(APS)是一个针对年龄在6岁及以上,居住在保留区外的第一民族、梅蒂斯人和因纽特人的全国性调查。2012年APS重点关注了18~44岁原住民的教育、就业和健康状况,同时还收集了有关语言、收入、住房和流动性等信息。
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