(一)董事会联盟的组织结构
董事会联盟是美国最大的城市公立学校系统所组成的联盟,旨在改善城区学生的教育,领导和管理城市公立学校,激励和增强公众的信心,帮助学生达到最高的学术标准,把学生培养成具有创造力的成功人士。[33]为了解决某些特定问题,董事会联盟建立了五个特别工作组[34]:财政工作组,试图找到解决城市学校资金不均衡的途径;英语语言学习者与双语教育工作组,关注英语语言学习者所遇到的问题;成绩工作组,用来降低不同学生之间的学术成绩差距;领导和管理工作组,处理学校领导和管理问题;专业发展工作组,向教师和管理者提供最新的工具和技术来改善学生成绩。[35]
为了提供财政和管理的支持,董事会联盟在执行委员会内设三个小组委员会:规章制度小组委员会,在适当的法律和规章的框架下,界定董事会联盟的任务、职责和构成;审计小组委员会,复查和研究预算问题,确保财政收入的正确使用;成员资格小组委员会,设定合适的会员资格,招募、筛选、推荐新成员。[36]
(二)董事会联盟的职能及思考
联盟通过电视台和广播电台,提出新一轮的公共服务声明和视频,支持共同核心标准,推出一系列新手段,帮助学区选择与新标准一致的高质量的教材。联盟也研发一套独特的标准,帮助学区选择英语语言学习者急需的教材,鼓励出版商改善教材的质量和严谨性。[37]
联盟通过法规、交流、研究、技术援助,让美国的立法者、媒体和公众了解大城市学校取得的进步和存在的问题。联盟对课程、研究、测验、财政、管理运行、人力、技术、法规、交际、与其他组织和政府决策者合作等领域也都有一定的责任。[38]联盟已在2008年对美国42个学区进行调研,2014年对美国53个学区进行调查。
综上,董事会管理的特色在于:
1.追求管理的效率
董事会在管理过程中,在坚持关注学生学术成绩的前提下,注重制定多样的管理标准与政策,提高董事会的决策能力、领导能力,积极进行财政预算。有效化解来自社区、职员和学校管理者的压力。董事会要避免出现只知道履行审批手续,机械式地盖公章的行为。董事会的有效领导主要依据政策进行管理、制定有效的管理规划与责任方案。
2.维护伙伴关系
这种伙伴关系不仅体现在董事会成员内部,尊重各个成员的价值观念,也体现在董事会重视保持与督学、州和地方机构、社区之间有效的关系,让社区参与项目的战略规划,利用有利条件,主动实现学区目标。在做出最终决策前,获得公共的支持。在学校共同体的外部(如社区)和内部(如教师)推动消息的流动,通过内部通讯、新闻稿、互联网以及任务发布会,全面解释董事会目前的行为和被提议的行为。
3.注重董事会成员的核心素养
董事会要求成员信守秘密,充分认识到自身被界定的成员角色。招募未来董事会成员,公职竞选或填充空额[39]。根据适当的自我评估,定期考察董事会的表现,坚持足够的培训。[40]
当然,董事会的管理也会遇到一些问题,例如,由于联邦和州的责任和评估的变化以及新的教育需求,学区正面临许多挑战。在解释政策、分配资源、调整专业发展、采用课程和教学实践等方面,董事会的有效领导将成为一个决定性的因素[41]。为了让董事会展现出有效的领导力,成员必须分辨出学区中的政策角色和管理角色,但在实际的管理过程中容易混淆政策角色与管理角色,很难真正厘清各自在管理体制中的角色和职责。
针对以上对美国城市公立中小学董事会的管理政策的研究,有以下几点经验值得思考:
第一,重视董事会自身的培训。应为成员提供与其供职的角色相关的各种实质性培训,提供自我评价报告、政策手册、教育报告、立场文件、国家和地方培训项目、学校法规等培训资源。董事会应积极参加团队的专业发展和培训,努力建构共享的知识、价值观和义务,为新当选的董事会成员举办上岗培训研讨班[42],通过正规培训,让新成员了解董事会的职能、政策与程序,重视成员在建立目标、制定指标、调整资源与目标、监督过程及公众交流等方面的作用,重视成员的正规和非正规学习活动的价值。
第二,加强董事会的核心素养。董事会不仅要为自己成为有效的董事会成员而负责,还要为有效的学校体制负责。通过尽责的管理行为和集体能力,履行自身的义务和职责[43],实现学校的有效管理。
第三,坚持集体商讨。董事会要关注政策,在政策制定、预算、适当的评价及培训等方面,与督学、其他地方机构及公众建立良好的关系。制定学区发展的远景计划,创造优质的氛围,确保财政责任与项目责任,开发课程标准,依靠政策进行管理。
【注释】
[1]L.A.Karoly,C.W.A.Panis.The 21st Century at Work:Forces Shaping the Future Workforce and Workplace in the United States.Santa Monica,CA:Rand.2004:xviii.
[2]D.Hornbeck,L.M.Salamon.Human Capital and America’s Future.Baltimore,MD:Johns Hopkins University Press,1991:1-28.
[3]Sergio Alfredo Canal.California School Boards:Professional Development and the Masters in Governance Training.University of Southern California,2013:35.
[4]The Council of the Great City Schools.“Urban School Board Survey:Characteristics,Structure,and Benefits,Second Survey and Report”.Urban Indicator,Fall 2009:3.
[5]The Council of the Great City Schools.“Urban School Board Survey:Characteristics,Structure,and Benefits,Second Survey and Report”.Urban Indicator,Fall 2009:12.
[6]Sergio Alfredo Canal.California School Boards:Professional Development and the Masters in Governance Training.University of Southern California,2013:41.
[7]Eugene R.Smoley.Effective School Boards:Strategies for Improving Board Performance (1st ed.) .San Francisco:Jossey-Bass,1999:4-5.
[8]Deborah Land.“Local School Boards under Review:Their Role and Effectiveness in Relation to Students’ Academic Achievement”.Review of Educational Research,2002 (2):229-278.
[9]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:180-182.
[10]The Council of the Great City Schools.“Urban School Board Survey:Characteristics,Structure,and Benefits,Second Survey and Report”.Urban Indicator,Fall 2009:10.
[11]外展服务,是一种组织的活动,它是向社区的人们提供服务或者建议,尤其是对不能或者不喜欢到医院、办公室等地方寻求帮助的人群,在服务机构之外的场域所提供的社区服务等。
[12]The Council of the Great City Schools.“Urban School Board Survey:Characteristics,Structure,and Benefits,Second Survey and Report”.Urban Indicator,Fall 2009:9.
[13]审计员,是检查董事会业务和财政记录的人员。(www.xing528.com)
[14]The Council of the Great City Schools.“Urban School Board Survey:Characteristics,Structure,and Benefits,Second Survey and Report”.Urban Indicator,Fall 2009:6-8.
[15]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:205-207.
[16]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:207-209.
[17]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:191-209.
[18]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:192-196.
[19]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:192-196.
[20]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:192-196.
[21]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:196-199.
[22]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:196-199.
[23]The Council of the Great City Schools.“Urban School Board Survey:Characteristics,Structure,and Benefits,Second Survey and Report”.Urban Indicator,Fall 2009:11.
[24]National Commission on Excellence in Education.A Nation at Risk:Findings and recommendations.http://www2.ed.gov/pubs/NatAtRisk/index.html,2016-09-10.
[25]Sergio Alfredo Canal.California School Boards:Professional Development and the Masters in Governance Training.University of Southern California,2013:35.
[26]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:175-177.
[27]Sergio Alfredo Canal.California School Boards:Professional Development and the Masters in Governance Training.University of Southern California,2013:18.
[28]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:199-201.
[29]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:199-201.
[30]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:201-203.
[31]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:201-203.
[32]The Council of the Great City Schools.“Urban School Board Survey:Characteristics,Structure,and Benefits,Second Survey and Report”.Urban Indicator,Fall 2009:9.
[33]The Council of the Great City Schools.Annual Report 2014-2015.http://www.cgcs.org/cms/lib/DC00001581/Centricity/Domain/16/Annual%20Report%20finalwebsite.pdf,2016-07-14.
[34]特别工作组(task forces):是指为解决某些问题而成立的特殊工作小组。
[35]The Council of the Great City Schools.Annual Report 2014-2015.http://www.cgcs.org/cms/lib/DC00001581/Centricity/Domain/16/Annual%20Report%20 final-website.pdf,2016-07-14.
[36]The Council of the Great City Schools.Annual Report 2014-2015.http://www.cgcs.org/cms/lib/DC00001581/Centricity/Domain/16/Annual%20Report%20 final-website.pdf,2016-07-14.
[37]The Council of the Great City Schools.Annual Report 2014-2015.http://www.cgcs.org/cms/lib/DC00001581/Centricity/Domain/16/Annual%20Report%20final-website.pdf,2016-07-14.
[38]The Council of the Great City Schools.Annual Report 2014-2015.http://www.cgcs.org/cms/lib/DC00001581/Centricity/Domain/16/Annual%20Report% 20 final-website.pdf,2016-07-14.
[39]Rickey Joe Williams.Practices of Board Presidents and Superintendents in Academically High-achieving Texas Urban School Districts.The University of Texas at Austin,2008:38.
[40]Deborah Land.“Local School Boards under Review:Their Role and Effectiveness in Relation to Students’ Academic Achievement”.Review of Educational Research,2002 (2):229-278.
[41]Sergio Alfredo Canal.California School Boards:Professional Development and the Masters in Governance Training.University of Southern California,2013:38.
[42]这种培训研讨班主要是任职前的培训与训练。
[43]J.P.Danzberger,M.W.Kirst,M.D.Usdan.Governing Public Schools:New Times New Requirements.Washington,D.C.Institute for Educational Leadership,1992:82.
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