解读古代丝绸之路服饰的难题

Some Problems of the Silk Road Costume Studies for the 5th-8th Century

Any good fashion designer or couturier has to properly study the costume of the past belonging to both his or her own land and many other countries；otherwise it is impossible to intuitively feel important mechanisms of change happening in people's looks.Those designer's ideas which are considered“unexpected and modern”by fashion-impaired people often come from the past.I have been studying the history of the ancient costume for forty-two years so far.In 1987，following the recommendation of the well-known specialist in ancient cultures of Central Asia academician Boris A.Litvinsky（Yatsenko 2000），I got interested in bright costume complexes of peoples who lived in western territories of modern China in oases of Xinjiang，and in northern parts—in the lands of nomads.The cultural influence of the both（the northern nomadic neighbours and the Han people汉人）was felt in oases.At the same time，the bright and specific costume was being formed in each oasis.A great number of imported fabrics，different ornament and plot combinations were used in oases due to imported trade routes hosted there.It was relevant for the local population to preserve and develop their own costume as a visual symbol of their ethnic identity under the condition when both the Chinese Empire and nomads were trying to extend their authority.All above said makes the study of Xinjiang Oases materials relevant to a historian.Today，the costume of the first millennium of the Christian era is by far the most detailed for Khotan（和田，于阗）（it is amply documented，though uneven in time，and we can determine the nature of its evolution）（Fig.1）and Kucha（龟兹，where we have detailed information for the short period of the 6th-8thcc only，Fig.2）.The sources of information for the two oases are quite different.For Khotan they are terracotta and authentic burial clothes，terms in some texts.The costume of Kucha is amply documented in Buddhist cave paintings and presents a great variety of forms.

Fig.1　Costume complex Costume of Khotan Kingdom of the 1st-8th cc.CE（1-2—after Yatsenko 2000；3-4—after Fabulous Creatures 2001；5—after Gropp 1974；6—after Li Xiaobin 1995）

Why is the costume of the two oases above all so interesting for us？I believe the reason is as follows：it had an impact on the costume of other often far away countries，thus，Xinjiang cannot be viewed as a peripheral region in the world history of the costume.It happened mainly due to the political influence and wide spread of the Turks（突厥）on the territory of Eurasia.

First，even in early terracotta from Khotan of the 2nd-4thcc.CE，we can see the long sleeved coat with two lapels which started to spread beginning from the 7th cc.CE，and nowadays it dominates in the formal and gala costume of the whole world in the form of the European jacket（Fig.3）.

Fig.2　Costume complex of Kucha peoples of the 6th-8th cc.CE（after Grunwedel 1912；Le Coq 1977）

Fig.3　The long sleeved coat of Khotan of the 2nd-4th cc.CE with two lapels the modern jacket

Second，Kucha may be considered the homeland of the low rectangular neckline which is known for short upper garments in the costumes of Eurasia.In Kucha of the 6th-8thcc，low neckline was worn by both aristocratic women and common dancers，the decolletage could also be hemicircular［Fig.4（1）］.Another type of neckline we know at that time for Khwarezm［Fig.4（2）］.The type of Kucha pelerines was seen later for the Turkic Uygurs of the same region［Fig.4（3）］.Probably，it did not only generate men's interest but also had ritual functions（for example，such neckline was depicted in Khwarezm and for Uygurs for women who mourned the dead）.

Third，for Kucha women we see a very slim waist which，probably，was a result of corset usage，likely beginning from adolescence［Fig.5（1）］.More rare it was used in Khotan（Taryshlak）［Fig.5（2）］.Probably，it was the earliest region of corset usage.It could be worn beginning from adolescent age as in Kumtura we can see the depiction of a local ruler's daughter—a girl with a very slim waist.

Fig.4　The low neckline in Kucha（1），in Khwarezm（Tok-kala），（2）in the western Khotano-Saka regions（Toqquz-Sarai），（3）and in Uigur Turfan kingdom（4）.

Fig.5　Corset usage in Kucha（1）and Khotan（2）

Fourth，for the Turks of the late 6th-early 8thcc we unexpectedly notice some influence of the costume of Kucha Oasis（the latter being under their political power for some time）（Yatsenko 2009，figs.15，17，19）.For example，on the sarcophagus of Yu Hong，the Sogdian‘sabao’from Tayuan city，who died in 592 we see only one Turkic personage presented in panel No.4［Fig.6（1）］.The costume of this Turk is very unusual.A short upper garment has short sleeves flared at their end，and the undergarment is longer and has usual narrow sleeves.The edges of the cuff are scalloped.Such specific combination of two garments worn on the upper part of the body was typical for the population of Kucha.Another original costume element here is a bunch of five short ribbons hanging from each shoulder and typical for noble men exclusively in Kucha［officers usually worn them only on one shoulder，Fig.6（2）］.The decorative breast ribbon，the trousers and shoes types are also characteristic features of the Kucha costume.

In the some burial terracotta Mingqi（冥器）of the Early Tang time with the realistic Early Turks the long sleeved cost was green［Fig.6（3）］.According to Xuanzang who watched in 630 the Western Turkic Kaghan Ton-yabgu with his escort in an everyday situation during hunting and specially marked the exclusiveness of a green caftan for him only.Such green clothes were popular in China during the Tang dynasty；later in the Song time，clothes of green and bright red colors were perceived as the most unbearable manifestation of the barbarian trend in the Chinese costume at the time which had spread since the epoch of the Northern Qi（550—577.A.D.）.But the special popularity of green for men's upper garments for Turks in the 7th cc.，we observe in the abovementioned Kucha Oasis which bordered on the territories where nomadic Turks roamed and camped［Fig.6（4）］.

Fig.6　Influence of the costume of Kucha Oasis for the Early Turks:（1）Turkic man with Kucha'costume elements on sarcophagus of Yu Hong，the Sogdian‘sabao’from Tayuan city，died in 592，panel No.4；（2）Kucha short upper garment with short sleeves flared at their end，and the undergarment is longer and has usual narrow sleeves；male bunch of five short ribbons hanging from each shoulder；（3）burial terracotta Minggi of the Early Tang time with the realistic Early Turks，the long sleeved coat is green；（4）green color in Kucha costume

It is a very interesting example of the costume influence of a small and not powerful at all but highly cultural Kucha Oasis on Turks.What can the reason for such effect be？The influence on some groups of Turks or even some important persons only？Political immigration？Military alliance？Gifts of clothing made for a specific occasion？We do not know.

Fifth，on the Silk Road，Khotan played a big role not only in cotton and also silk textile manufacture（silk production appeared here beginning from 419 A.D.due to a dynasty marriage）.It was the only region with mass production of headwear for sale abroad（up to the turn of the 9th-10thcc.，whenit was also known for the Arab Caliphate）.Unfortunately，the exact types of headwear is not identified，still we may suppose they were simple forms for men.We can see in Khotan depictions［Fig.7（1）］，whereas Kashgar（疏勒）was famous for its braided hats（Si-yu-ki 1906）.

Sixth，though the both oases were located within important routes of the Silk Road，the wide usage of imported fabrics and motifs on them is characteristic of more southern Khotan（probably，because in the 1st-3rd cc it was nearer the ways from such mighty states as the Kushan Empire and Parthian Iran and close to them in the main languages）.Particularly，in early Sampula necropolis trousers and skirts were made from fabrics of western production or had western plots including people in foreign clothes［Fig.7（2）］.

Khotan in the 1st-3rd cc was next to the vast Iranian World.I believe，just because of that，the remains of ancient Saka-Scythian“animal style”were preserved here in clothes decor for a very long time（the same tendency may be seen for much more western nomadic Sarmatians and Alans）.The color scale of Khotan early textile was rather diverse reminding northern neighbours of Pazyryk Culture［Fig.7（3）］.

Fig.7　Some elements of Khotan costume:（1）The typical types of Khotan headwear，probably，used for export；（2）the usage of imported fabrics and motifs on them in Khotan（Sampula）；（3）Textile design of“Scythian animal style”of the previous Saka-Scythian epoch in Khotan（Sampula）

I have considered the possible influence of Kucha on Khotan and western oases of Xinjiang so far.But sometimes we can suppose a reverse impact of the Khotan costume on Kucha.A bright example of that is the element popular in the Iranian World（Scythians of Ukraine，Sarmatians of Hungary，Parthians of South Iran，Yuezhi or Kushans of Bactria）and known in it earlier than others（since the 4thcc.BCE up to the 3rd-4thcc.CE），garments with 6 small triangular projections at equal intervals along the skirt's edge.Later on，both in Kucha（Kizil）and Khotan（Subashi），the same as in more western Ustrushana，male and female short upper garments had already twelve of such projections［Fig.8（1）］.Here the question arises as to why the number of such sharp projections is always a multiple of three:6 or 12？I have answered this question with the help of ancient beliefs of the most northern people on the planet—the Nganasans in the Far North，Siberia.Shamans of this ethnos（with population of 800 people only）preserved an interesting ancient tradition.While shaman's relatives were making a costume for him（on the whole，the costume symbolized a sacred animal—a polar deer）.The main part of it was obligatory cut of two deer skins.The deer should be not a domestic animal but a wild one（Prokofieva 1971）［Fig.8（2）］.At the same time，Nganasans，according to the tradition，sewed three analogous triangular projections on the skirt of rectangular parts of the garment.The projections imitated the remains of skin removed from the legs and tail.Besides，the spine of the deer to be was imitated ornamentally on the back of the future costume.Thus，a series of triangle projections，6 or 12 in number，attached to the bottom of the hem once imitated ancient tailoring design of sacred animal's skin.It is evident that such clothes have extended a ritual character.Later，these elements of design spread as far as Western Europe as the decor.

Fig.8　The garments with 6 or 12 small triangular projections at equal intervals along the skirt's edge:（1）the ancient and early medieval Iranian and Tokharian peoples；（2）shamanic costume of Nganasan peoples（after Prokofieva 1971）

The costume of Khotan is known to us due to clothes from necropolises and series of images from the earlier period of the 1st-4thcc.CE，and this fact allows us to find out its evolution process.Comparing these two periods，we note that colors and female coiffure changed dramatically.Upright collars lost their popularity.Sleeved coats now have long sleeves for both genders（not only for women）.The waist was accentuated.Vertical stripes on skirts replaced horizontal ones.

In the 6th-8thcc，by the beginning of Middle Ages，Kucha was at the western boundary line of the zone where clothes without shoulder seams were spread.Clothes with detachable hem were characteristic for Kucha，if compared to Khotan.In this Oasis，seams attaching sleeves to the bodice were usually accentuated.On the whole，there was a typical for Central Asia general tendency to substitute upper clothes worn over the head by garments cut from top to bottom and fastened.In the female costume，such substitution took place earlier than in the male one.Such garments were not wrapped but buttoned excluding the upper（breast）part.

The manner to decorate the edges of short sleeves of upper shirts with pleated stripes is known for nobility［Fig.9（1）］.Placing of lapels at the collars of male upper garments reflected their social status.Most important aristocrats usually had two lapels［Fig.9（2）］.(www.xing528.com)

Noble warriors of lower rank，court dancers and musicians had one lapel at the right side；and they also wore belts with a line of metallic plates and a dagger［Fig.10（1）］.Two types of shoulder pelerines were worn in Kucha.One type was of local origin.Female pelerines were of three colors，and male ones were monochromic only［Fig.10（2）］.Special shoulder medallions differed in form for men（round or drop-shaped）and women（heart-shaped）.The beret with two bands was a common headwear for both men and women.A semispherical female headwear is rather original.Its top is decorated with an imitation of a tower with a band through it［（Fig.10（3）］.The color scale of the Kucha costume is quite peculiar:the combination of three‘cold colrs’—socalled pastel colors（green，grayish-blue and grey with rare white and black）is predominant.

Fig.9　Kucha costume details:（1）nobles'manner to decorate the edges of short sleeves of upper shirts with pleated stripes；（2）the aristocratic garments with two lapels

Fig.10　Kucha costume details:（1）noble warriors of lower rank，court dancers and musicians with one lapel at the right side；（2）shoulder pelerines of local type.Female pelerines were of three colors，male ones were monochromic only；（3）a semispherical female headwear

First，there is an abundance of detailed female depictions（earlier colored images of Turks depict，excluding coins from Chach or Tashkent Oasis，exclusively‘male's world’）.Before getting married，girls gathered hair in a topknot and covered it with red silk［Fig.11（1）］.Of all female headwear，‘sumuje’worn by noble women and，according to‘Songshi’data，used in ritual performances，presents a special interest［Fig.11（2）］.It is a small flat hat，varnished red and joined with two small braids which are tied with a bow at the top.The rest of the hair at that are gathered into two large knots at the sides of the head and covered with translucent black fabric with embroidery fenghuang（凤凰）and clouds.One of Uygur Nestorian Christian women in the church at the western gate to Qocho has an interesting type of headwear.It is a complexly and originally tied turban［Fig.11（3）］.An analogous headwear was discovered on a Turkic male statue from Altan-Saandal in Mongolia，and we have no ground to identify its origin in the Turkic culture as connected with Arabic Islamic influence or earlv Indian tradition.

Second，the following fact presents interest:up to the beginning of the 20th century Uygur women preserved two types of headwear documented in materials of the Pre-Mongolian Uygur state in Turfan:a ball-shaped one flattened from the poles（type 6 after Lyudmila Chvyr'）in Kirish paintings，and also small hemispherical hats made of four sectors（type 1 after Chvyr'；later on，all their surface was embroidered with gold thread）.There exists an authentic artifact from Qocho ruins［Fig.11（4）］.The hats preserved as peculiarities of local groups.

Third，monochromic（red）clothes domineered or the fabric had red basic background（excluding the early stage of Manichaeism/摩尼教）［Fig.12（1）］；however，in some situations noble people put on garments made of polychromic fabric（evidently，made of local one of high quality）.The 12thcc became the most important boundary line in the history of Uygur costume.It was the time when，according to Chinese sources and depictions（for example，the Uygur prince in cave 409），black color started to prevail［Fig.12（2）］.Clothes made of dark colored fabric（black，grey，brown，dark-blue）were preserved by Uygurs up to the early 20th cc

Fig.11　（1）Turkic Turfan Uygurs'costume elements in the late 9th—11thcc.；（2）female‘sumuje’headdress；（3）Turban one of Uygur Nestorian Christian women，the church at the western gate to Qocho；（4）Two types of headwear documented in materials of the Pre-Mongolian Uygur women preserved up to the 20th cc:① a ball-shaped headdress flattened from the poles（Kinsh paintings）；② a small hemispherical hat made of four sectors.

Fig.12　Color of Uygur costume of the 9th—12thcc.:（1）The monochromic（red）clothes in the early Uiguna or the fabric had red basic background；（2）Uygur ruler in black costume，Dunhuang，the 12th cc

Fourth，there may be observed a big variety of hair style and headwear for both genders（Fig.13）.It reflected not only social hierarchy but also a complex clan and tribal composition of the Pre-Mongolian Uygur Kingdom.Our studies have shown that the headdress（which was often fastened with a red lace under the chin）was the most important visual symbol of belonging to one of the steps in social hierarchy for men from all six groups of nobility.For the highest group（following the ruler—idiqut himself）—the members of qaghan'clan and other best aristocratic familes，including ministers，a high sharp-topped，complex in its form and basically red or yellow headdress of complete form was a characteristic costume element［Fig.14，（1）］.The belt，braided of green laces was decorated with round gold plaques（there were two small bags and two pen-cases attached to it）.The coat with red hue and with very long sleeves（usually fastened at the wrists with a small button），footwear—black or white high boots，hairstyle—4-6 long braids and a small beard often parted in the middle.

Less important personages were usually depicted as managers at banquettes or participants of falconry.Their headdresses（fastened with a lace under the chin）have a hemispherical form［Fig.14（2）］.They worn either two braids or their hair was cut in a direct line above the forehead.Their long sleeved coats were also made of polychromic fabric.They evidently wore two belts at a time:the upper one was made from red fabric of Chinese type，tied in a bow at the body's front；and the lower one made of leather，decorated with plates and having 4-6 additional hanging straps.Two groups of men of a lower rank serve the needs of the ruler and the people of the highest rank（serve as court musicians，hold fans and parasols above them，carry their ceremonial poles）.Their headdresses are a trident-shaped one on a high cylinder base and a small hat with a lense-shaped top of black or white.In the first case their belts also have 406 additional hanging straps（with diamond-shaped plaques）.In the second case，they wear one，two or four braids and simple long-sleeved coats［Fig.14（3）］.

Fig.13　The types of Uygur hair style and headwear for both genders

Fig.14　Headress types:（1）the high sharp-topped，complex in its form and basically red or yellow headdress of the members of qaghan（idikut）clan and other best aristocratic familes；including ministers，used a high sharp-topped，complex in its form and basically red or yellow headdress；（2）the headdress less important personages（the managers at banquettes or participants of falconry）；（3）Two types of headdresses of the court musicians，hold fans and parasols for the nobles above them，carry their ceremonial poles；the top of black or white color

Fifth，analogous to German peoples in Western and Northern Europe，in Uygur Qocho male hairstyle of long braids—from 2 to 12—turned out to be a privilege of nobility，whereas common men started to wear short haircut and shaVe beards.Commoners'clothing was shorter（knee-length）and belted with a common rope or a strap.

Sixth，the Uygur costume complex of the 9th-11th cc underwent a certain Chinazation.It manifested itself in usage of Chinese fabric，wrapping of garments from the left to the right，wearing long sleeved coats of Chinese type with considerably widening sleeves，wearing Chinese textile belts with long hanging widening ends by both genders and female belts tightening breasts，usage of the specific Chinese male headdress pu'tou（幞头）（by both noble men and commoners），wearing some types of Chinese coiffeur，also shoes and stockings of Chinese type by women，and a rather wide usage of Chinese ornamental motifs

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