WTO成员参与问题的挑战与应对

在WTO的制度设计之初，各成员相互平等，每一成员一票，共同制定多边贸易新规则，赋予了中小成员与发达成员同样的参与规则制定的权利。然而，这一规定只提供了形式上的平等。要实现实质上的平等，使中小发展中成员有能力参与规则制定、参与WTO事务讨论以及在与其他成员发生贸易争端时利用争端解决机制维护自身利益还需要有相应的制度支持。WTO咨询中心（Advisory Center of WTO Law，以下简称“ACWL”）作为非营利组织在一定程度上为成员方提供了支持。根据ACWL的相关规定，该中心为其成员中的发展中国家和欠发达国家提供法律援助。目前，ACWL有36个成员，非成员无法在ACWL进行咨询。但欠发达国家即使不是成员，也能够在ACWL进行咨询。ACWL为成员以及欠发达国家提供参与争端解决程序相关的法律服务。与律师事务所提供的法律服务相比，ACWL的法律服务更加低廉，为发展中成员和欠发达成员参与争端解决机制创造了条件。

然而，ACWL的法律服务并不能满足发展中成员和欠发达成员参与WTO谈判磋商和其他业务的广泛需要，这些成员仍然面临参与WTO的障碍。事实上，许多中小发展中成员和欠发达成员在WTO总部日内瓦没有常驻机构。即使设有常驻机构，人手也有限。另外，这些成员由于“缺乏人手、经验和法律知识以及语言技能”^[45]，无法参与WTO各种贸易议题的讨论和许多争端解决案件，因此失去了在WTO机制下充分表达自身诉求和维护自身权益的机会。大多数发展中成员和欠发达成员仍然面临参与WTO事务的现实障碍，限制了其在多边贸易的舞台上维护自身利益和发挥更大的作用。

【注释】

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[10]WTO.Global Trade Growth Loses Momentum Since Trade Tension Persists.（2019-04-02）.https：//www.wto.org/english/news_e/pres19_e/pr837_e.htm.

[11]Manyika James， Susan Lund， Jacques Bughin， Jonathan Woetzel， Kalin Stamenov， Dhruv Dhingra.Digital Globalization： The new era of global flows.New York： Mckinsey Global Institute.2016： 1.

[12]Ibid.：10

[13]此前50多年中，美国政府基于“232条款”提起的国家安全调查仅有14次，因为以保护国家安全为由的限制贸易措施往往有滥用之嫌，会在贸易伙伴中产生巨大的“模仿效应”。

[14]U.S.Department of Commerce.The Effect of Imports of Steel on the National Security： An investigation conducted under Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act Section 232， as amended.（2018-01-11）.https：//www.commerce.gov/sites/default/files/the_effect_of_imports_of_steel_on_the_national_security_-_with_redactions_-_20 180111.pdf.

[15]U.S.Department of Commerce.The Effect of Imports of Aluminum on the National Security： An investigation conducted under Section 232 of the Trade Expansion Act Section 232， as amended.（2018-01-17）.https：//www.commerce.gov/sites/default/files/the_effect_of_imports_of_aluminum_on_the_national_security_-_wit h_redactions_-_20180117.pdf.

[16]U.S.Department of Commerce.Secretary Ross Releases Steel and Aluminum 232 Reports in Coordination with White House.（2018-02-18）.https：//www.commerce.gov/news/press-releases/2018/02/secretary-ross-releases- steel-and-aluminum-232-reports-coordination.

[17]Fefer Rachel F， Bill Canis， Brock R Williams.Section 232 Auto Investigation.Congress Research Services， 2018， No.IF10971：1.https：//fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/IF10971.pdf.

[18]Lawder David.Trump Can No Longer Impose “Section 232” Auto Tariffs after Missing the Deadline： Experts.（2019-11-19）.https：//www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-trade-autos/trump-can-no-longer-impose-section-232- auto-tariffs-after-missing-deadline-experts-idUSKBN1XT0TK.

[19]U.S.Department of The Treasury.Treasury Releases Proposed Regulations to Reform National Security Reviews for Certain Foreign Investments and Other Transations in the United States.（2019-09-17）.https：//home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm779.

[20]Baldwin Richard.21stRegionalism： Filling the Gap between 21stTrade and 21stTrade Rules.World Trade Organization Staff Working， 2011， Paper ERSD-2011-08： 8-10.

[21]USTR.United States-Mexico-Canada Trade Fact Sheet Modernizing NAFTA into a 21stCentury Trade Agreement.[2019-05-02].https：//ustr.gov/trade-agreements/free-trade-agreements/united-states-mexico-canada- agreement/fact-sheets/modernizing.

[22]USMCA涵盖内容广泛，包括货物贸易、服务贸易、原产地规则、关税便利、政府采购、数字贸易、知识产权保护、汇率、竞争政策、国有企业、劳工和环境等34个章节的内容。(www.xing528.com)

[23]Japan’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs.Japan-EU Economic Partnership Agreement.[2019-04-13].https：// www.mofa.go.jp/policy/economy/page6e_000013.html.

[24]Alvaredo Facundo， Lucas Chancel， Thomas Piketty， Emmanuel Saez， Gabriel Zucman.World In-equality Report 2018.World Inequality Lab， 2017： 69-71.

[25]Shatz Howard J， David A Shlapak.The Made-in-America Global Security and Economic System Still Serves U.S.Interests.[2019-08-19].https：//www.rand.org/blog/2016/10/the-made-in-america-global-security-and- economic-system.html.

[26]Cohan William D.How Quantitative Easing Contributed to Nation’s Inequality Problem.（2014-10-22）.New York Times.https：//dealbook.nytimes.com/2014/10/22/how-quantitative-easing-contributed-to-the-nations- inequality-problem/.

[27]笔者根据世界银行数据进行测算。https：//data.worldbank.org/country.

[28]Burgsten C Fred.China and the United States： Trade Conflict and Systemic Competition.Peterson Institute of International Economics， 2018， Policy Brief No.18-21： 4.

[29]Schwab Klaus， Michael E Porter， Jeffery D Sachs.The Global Competitiveness Report 2000.Cambridge： Harvard University Press， 2000： 11

[30]Schwab Klaus.The Global Competitiveness Report 2018.[2019-08-15].World Economic Forum， 2018： ix， http：//www3.weforum.org/docs/GCR2018/05FullReport/TheGlobalCompetitivenessReport2018.pdf.

[31]Ibid.：10.

[32]CB Insights.Research Briefs： Unicorn Abroad： The Creation of Billion Dollar Startups Is Shifting out of the US.（2017-10-05）.https：//www.cbinsights.com/research/global-new-unicorn-companies-us-china/.

[33]The Economist.America VS.China： The Battle for Digital Supremacy.The Economist， March 2018：11.

[34]Roberts Anthea， Henrique Choe Moraes， Victor Furguson.The Geoeconomic World Order.（2018-11-19）.Lawfare.https：//www.lawfareblog.com/geoeconomic-world-order.

[35]Stiglitz Joseph E.China： Towards a new model of development.China Economic Journal， 2018， 1（1）： 34.

[36]Wang Christine.Trump Threatens to Withdraw the WTO.（2018-08-30）.CNBC.https：//www.cnbc.com/ 2018/08/30/trump-threatens-to-withdraw-from-world-trade-organization.html.

[37]Wingrove Josh.Economists Invoke Great Depression in Warning to Trump on Trade.（2018-05-02）.Bloomberg.　https：//www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2018-05-02/economists-invoke-great-depression-in-warning- to-trump-on-trade.

[38]The Demise of Development in the Doha Round Negotiations.Texas International Journal of Law， 2010， 45： 575.

[39]Dollar David， Ryan Hass， Jeffery A Bader.Accessing U.S.-China Relations 2 Years into the Trump’s Presidency.（2019-01-15）.Brookings Institute.https：//www.brookings.edu/blog/order-from-chaos/2019/01/15/ assessing- u-s-china-relations-2-years-into-the-trump-presidency/.

[40]Nolt James H.Realism， Liberalism， and Corporatism.（2016-05-12）.World Policy.http：//www.worldpolicy.org/blog/2016/05/12/realism-liberalism-and-corporatism.

[41]Sandbu Martin.The Battles of Ideology That Will Define Our Age.（2017-12-26）.Financial Times.https：//www.ft.com/content/8417bd56-e658-11e7-8b99-0191e45377ec.

[42]Posen Adam.The Post-American World Economy： Globalization in Trump Era.Foreign Affairs， 2018， 97（2）：28.

[43]USTR.Findings of Investigation into China’s Acts， Policies， and Practices Related to Technology Transfer， Intellectual Property， and Innovation under Section 301 of the Trade Act of 1974.（2018-03-22）.https：//ustr.gov/ sites/default/files/Section%20301%20FINAL.PDF.

[44]WTO.Agreement on Government Procurement.[2019-08-23].https：//www.wto.org/english/tratop_e/ gproc_ e/gp_gpa_e.htm.

[45]Marc L Busch， Eric Reinhardit， Gregory Shaffer.Does Legal Capacity Matter？—A Survey of WTO Members.World Trade Review， 2009， 8（4）： 572.