三、综合语与分析语
(一)定义
综合语的特征是运用形态变化(inflection)来表达语法关系。Webster’Ninth New Collegiate Dictionary给综合语定义为:A synthetic language is“characterized by frequent and systematic use of inflected forms to express grammatical relationships”。拉丁语Latin、德语German和古英语Old English等都属于这类语言。分析语的特征是不用形态变化而用词序及虚词来表达语法关系。The Random House College Dictionary给分析语定义为:An analytic language is“characterized by a relatively frequent use of function words,auxiliary verbs,and changes in word order to express syntactic relations,rather than of inflected forms”。汉语是典型的分析语。[27]
现代英语是从古英语发展而来,仍保留着综合语的某些特征,但也具有分析语的特点:有形态变化,但不像典型的综合语那么复杂;[28]词序比汉语灵活,但相对固定;虚词很多,用得也相当频繁。现代英语运用遗留下来的形态变化、相对固定的词序及丰富的虚词来表达语法关系,因此属综合—分析语(synthetic-analytic language)。[29]形态变化、虚词和词序是表达语法关系的三大语法手段。这些语法手段在英汉两种语言中具有不同的特征。
(二)英语有形态变化,汉语没有严格意义上的形态变化
所谓形态变化就是词的形式变化。主要包括以下两方面:
(1)构词形态的变化,即起构词作用的词缀变化(affixation)包括大量的前缀(prefix)和后缀(suffix)。英语相对于汉语来说,拥有大量的词缀。英语可运用丰富的词缀构词造句,如“他行进的速度快得令人惊讶。”这句可翻译成多种英文版本,而汉语表达相对来说要少得多。
He moved astonishingly fast.
He moved with astonishing rapidity.
His movements were astonishingly rapid.
His rapid movements astonished us.
His movements astonished us by their rapidity.
The rapidity with which he moved astonished us.
He astonished us by moving rapidly.
He astonished us by his rapid movements.
The rapidity of his movements was astonishing.
He astonished us by the rapidity of his movements.(O.Jespersen)
以上例子表明:英语可以通过词形变化,改变词性,用这些词灵活组句,可以表达一个几乎相同的意思;汉语没有词形变化,就难以用这么多的句式来表达同样的意思。英汉互译时,往往要改变词性、转换词类,才能通顺地表达原意。
(2)构形形态的变化:就是表达语法意义的词型变化。
我给他一本书。 I gave him a book.
他已给我两本书。He has given me two books.
他爸爸常常给他一些书。His father often gives him books.
汉语的“我”、“他”没有形式变化,同一个词可以表示主格、宾格或所有格;“书”没有形式变化,可以表示单数或复数;动词“给”也没有形态变化,可以表示现在、过去或已完成的行为。但英语对应的词I,me,he,him,his,book,gives,gave,has given却有形态变化。英语的动词、助动词和情态动词常结合起来,运用其形态变化,表示动词的时态、语态和语气。[30]
例1.New factories are beingbuilt all over the country.
译文:全国到处都在兴建新工厂。
例2.During the wartime,years like these would have meant certain death for many people.Manywould have become beggars and others would have been compelled to sell their children.
译文:战争期间如果碰到这样的年景,很多人肯定会死去,很多会逃荒要饭,很多人会被迫卖儿卖女。
现代英语的形态变化除了词缀变化,还指动词、名词、代词、形容词和副词的变化。这些变化有:gender,number,case,tense,aspect,voice,mood,degree of comparison,person and parts of speech。汉语没有形态变化,一般要借助词语、安排词序、隐含意义或其他办法分别表达语法意义。
例1.Thus encouraged,they made a still bolder plan for the next year.
译文:(由于)受到了这样的鼓励,他们为第二年制定了一个更大胆的计划。
例2.I regret not having taken her advice.
译文:我后悔没有听她的劝告。
例3.据说此书已译成多种语言。
译文:The book is said to have been translated into many languages.
现代英语的形态变化虽不如典型的综合语那样复杂,但使用得十分频繁。H·Sweet(1920)认为:“The English inflections,few as their number is,are an integral and essential part of the language….The excessive frequency of these forms gives them great morphological weight…..We cannot but accept Sayce’s dictum,‘once inflectional,always inflectional’.Hence,while English appears as almost uninflectional when compared with such a language as Latin,it appears in the opposite light when compared with an isolating language such as Chinese.”[31]
严格来讲,汉语没有形态变化。汉语可以说“学生们”,但在“两个学生”、“他们是学生”中,却不需要加“们”,而在英语的“student”却都要加“-s”。有如,“我们(的)学校”(our school)、“你看见(了)没有?‘(Have you seen it?)中的“的”和“了”可用可不用,而在英语相应的词却有形态变化。[32]
(三)英语词序比较灵活,汉语词序相对固定
形态变化与词序密切相关。形态变化越多的语言,词序越灵活,反之亦然。拉丁语是典型的形态语言(综合语)词即使移动了位置,也可以从其形态标志识别其语法意义,因而词序很灵活。例如,拉丁语的主语和宾语有不同的形式,其位置可以改变而意义却完全相同,Amor vincit omnia=Omnia vincit amor,意思都是“爱能征服一切”(Love conquers all things)。汉语是典型的分析语,词没有形态标志,位置不能随便移动,词语之间的关系主要是通过安排词序及使用虚词来表达。例如上句,若把词序该为“一切能征服爱”,则意思完全相反。英语属综合—分析语,词序不如拉丁语灵活,但也不如汉语固定。形态变化、虚词和词序这三大语法手段互相配合或交替运用,使英语词语和从句的位置比汉语灵活。[33]
(1)英汉句子主要成分(如主语、谓语动词、宾语或表语)的词序基本上相同,一般来说,英汉都是:主—动—宾(表)。但与汉语相比,英语词序倒置现象较多。H.Fower将英语词序的倒装现象归为九类:[34]
第一类:What in the word do you mean?
(Interrogative inversion)
第二类:Come you,everybody!
(Imperative inversion)
第三类:What a beautiful voice you have!
(Exclamatory inversion)
第四类:A pair of black eyes might have done some execution had they been placed in a smoother face.
(Hypothetical inversion)
第五类:Inexpressible was the astonishment of the little party when they returned to find that Mr.Pickwick had disappeared.
(Balance inversion)
第六类:Such are the rewards that always crown virtue.
(Link inversion)
第七类:By negation is meant the denial or absence of facts.
(Signpost inversion)
第八类:Not a finger did I lay on him.
(Negative inversion)
第九类:Good friend for Jesus’sake,forebear
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blessed be he that spares these stones.
And curst be he that moves my bones.(W.Shakespeare)
(Metrical inversion)
英语词序灵活主要是因为:形态变化、连接词、词语间要语法关系一致。H.Sweet认为:“The free word order in such a language as Latin is mainly the result of concord.”汉语没有这种一致的关系,只能按照表意的需要排列词序。如:
例1.He had to quit the position and went exile,having been deprived of his power.
译文:他被剥夺了权力之后,只好离职,流落他乡。
例2.No man thinks more highly than I do of the patriotism,as well as abilities,of the worthy gentlemen who have just addressed the house.
译文:刚才几位可尊敬的先生向全体代表发言了。对于这几位先生的爱国精神及才干,我个人比任何人都更钦佩。
(2)英语的定语可前可后(通过形态变化或连接词),汉语一般在名词的前面。
例1.一个很重要的问题。
A very important question/aquestion of great importance
例2.一个可以辩论的题目。
A debatable subject/a subject which can be debatd
例3.以空前的速度
at an unprecedented speed/at a speed unprecedented
英语的修饰词和被修饰词有时可互相转换,改变其修饰关系;汉语往往不能有类似的转化。
例4.他说的话并没有前后矛盾之处。
There is no inconsistency in what he said.
There is nothing inconsistent in what he said.
例5.她闪亮的眼睛说明她非常激动。
Her sparkling eyes betrayed her great excitement.
The sparkle of her eyes betrayed her great excitement.
英汉的定语一般都紧挨着名词。但英语的定语有时可远离名词,借助语法关系前后一致的原则,中间可插其他内容。后置定语可很长。[35]
例1.Many sketches are in existence of peasants seated by the roadside and men and woman at work in the fields.
译文:至今仍保存着许多速写,画的是坐在路旁的农民和田里劳动的男男女女。
例2.The second aspect is the application in all members of society,from the government officials to the ordinary citizens,of the special methods of thought and action that scientists use in their work.
译文:第二方面是使用科学家们在工作中所运用的特殊的思想方法和行动方法。社会所有成员,从政府官员到普通老百姓,都要使用这些方法。
翻译英语定语时,必须根据原文的意思和汉语的习惯灵活处理。即使是翻译英语的单词定语,有时也要改变其位置,或转换成汉语的谓语或其他成分,如:
例1.She had such a kindly,smiling,tender,gentle,generous heart of her own.
译文:她心地厚道,为人乐观,性情温柔,待人和蔼,器量又大。
例2.She was an intelligent,attractive and somewhat temperamental daughter of a well-to-do doctor in London.
译文:她是伦敦一位富裕医生的女儿,有才华,又迷人,但有点脾气。
类似以上多个描写性词语连用时,在英语里多作定语,少作谓语(heavy attribute,small predicate),在汉语中则多作谓语,少作定语(heavy predicate,small attribute)。翻译时若能灵活利用这一不同特点,译文往往比较符合表达习惯。
(3)英语常常是先判断或结论后讲事实或描写,即先表态后叙事;先短后长即头轻脚重型(end-weight);多用长句复合句。汉语则相反;汉语按时间先后顺序、因果顺序、假设—推论顺序、事实—结论顺序(先叙事后表态)来安排语序;常用短句,分句,流水句[36]。
例1.Nowadays it is understood that a diet which contains nothing harmful may result in serious disease if certain important elements are missing.
译文:如今人们知道,如果食物中缺少了某些重要的成分,即使其中不含有任何有害的物质,也会引起严重的疾病。
例2.I had not known him for 20years without learning that he always kept in the upper-left pocket of his waistcoat the little book in which he put down his engagement.
译文:我认识他20年,我知道:在他马甲的左上方口袋里总是放着一本小册子,里面写着他的约会安排。
例3.The assertion that it was difficult,if not impossible,for a people to enjoy its basic rights unless it was able to determine freely its political status and to ensure freely its economic,social and cultural development was now scarcely contested.
译文:如果一个民族不能自由地决定其政治地位,不能自由地保证其经济、社会和文化的发展,要享受其基本权利,即使不是不可能,也是不容易的。这一论断,几乎是无可置疑的了。
例4.He had flown in just the day before from Georgia where he had spent his vacation basking in the Caucasian sun after he had completed the construction job he had been engaged in in the South.
译文:他本来在南方从事的一项建筑工作,任务完成后,
他前往格鲁吉亚度假,享受高加索的阳光,昨天才坐飞机回来。[37]
例5.But even more important,it was the farthest(cosmic clouds)that scientists had been able to look into the past,for what they were seeing were the patterns and structures that exists 15billion years ago.(考研英语1998年第71题)
译文:但更为重要的是,这是科学家们所能观测的最遥远的过去的宇宙云,因为他们看到的是150亿年前宇宙云的形状和结构[38]。
英汉思维方式,语序和表达方法不同,如何翻译英语长难句?分析语法关系—改变语序—重组结构—按汉语逻辑顺序表达。一起起来翻译下列英语长难句?
例1.Category 2contains only four items,and I shall say no more about them except that,since they are under consideration,we should not let the grass under feet,but attempt,as early as possible,to arrive at a common understanding in the interest of humanity.
这是一个并列复合句,包孕多个修饰语和从句,表达五层的意思。汉语要表达同样的意思,必须按照逻辑顺序重新安排、拆成七个部分,组成三个句子,顺序也发生了变化。其译文为:第二类只包括四项,而且都已在审议之中。为了人类的利益,我们应该不失时机,力图尽快求得共同的认识。除此之外,别的我就不多说了。
2)I believe that I speak for every sincere and serious representative in the United Nations-so I am encouraged to believe by the speeches to which we have already listened this morning-when I say that the anniversary must be an occasion for an honest assessment of our failures in the past,matched by an equally determined will to do better in the future,so that we can escape from frustration and turn the anniversary into an inspiration and an achievement.(www.xing528.com)
这是一个多重复合句,通过连接词和形态变化把八层意思连接起来,先表态,后叙事,其语序几乎与汉语的表达习惯相反。请比较汉语译文:
这次周年纪念会应该是一个老老实实地评估我们过去的失误的时候,同时也应该是一个表达我们有同样决心要做好今后工作的时机。这样,我们就可免遭挫折,并可把这次周年纪念变成一种鼓舞和成就。当我讲这番话时,我相信———今天上午我们听到的发言也使我相信———我是代表联合国每一位真诚和严肃的代表讲话的。[39]
(三)英汉都有大量虚词,但各有特点
(1)英语经常使用冠词,但一词之差,相去甚远;汉语没有冠词。
I had lived here for more than a year.我住在这里已一年多了。(一年又几个月)
I had lived here for more than one year.我住在这里已不止一年了。(可能两年或三年)
She served me with a kind of coffee.
她请我喝一种特别的咖啡。
She served me with coffee of a kind.
她请我喝一种不太好的咖啡。
a hundred and one许许多多
one hundred and one一百零一
She was with a child她带着一个孩子
She was with child她怀孕了。
They are students of our school他们是本校的部分学生
They are the students of our school他们是本校的全体学生
out of question毫无问题
out of the question不可能
take the chair(当会议主席)主持会议
take a chair坐下
练习:(请注意冠词的使用:一词之差,相去甚远)
of age———of an age
give battle to———give the battle
leave college———leave the college
in a word———in word
in case of———in the case of
in dock———in the dock
This is a matter of moment.———This is a matter of the moment.
members of society———members of the society
in ward———in the ward
give sb the axe/bag/boot/kick/sack/bird/push
in blue———in the blue———in the blues
in the red———in the black———in the pink———in the green
ring the bell———ring a bell
in the cart———in a cart
from the cradle to the grave
by the jin/kilogram/pound/dozen/piece/
by the hour/day/week/month/year
on the rise/increase/decrease/decline
I’m on the point of leaving for New York.
In point of this question,I agree with you.
a slip of the pen/tongue———put pen to paper———give tongue to sth
in the search for———in search of
at a distance———in the distance
She has had a good education.
in fashion———in the fashion———in a fashion———out of fashion
make a fuss about sth———make a fuss of sb
have/take a holiday———be/go on holiday
(2)汉语有丰富的助词,这是汉语的一大特点。助词又分为动态助词(如:着、了、过)、结构助词(如:的、地、得)和语气助词(如:啊、呀、啦、呢、吧、吗、嘛)等。这些助词的作用,有一部分相当于英语的形态变化,有一部分却能左右结构、表达丰富的语气色彩。
今天不会下雨吧?(揣测语气)
It isn’t going to rain today,is it?
你好好想想吧!(提议语气)
Just think it over.
明天就明天吧。(认可语气)
All right,let’s make it tomorrow.
咱们走吧。(商量语气)
Let’s go.
打吧,打不下去;跑吧,跑不了,敌人只好投降。(假设语气)
Unable to fight on or to escape,the enemy were forced to surrender.
(3)英语常用介词,汉语则少用。英语介词数量大、使用相当频繁。汉语介词大多是从动词“借”来的,严格说来,“现代中国语根本就没有真正的介词”。[40]英译汉时,英语的介词常常译成汉语的动词。
例1.He is a man above vulgar interests
译文:他是一个脱离了低级趣味的人。
例2.If a man couldn’t walk into a room and tell who was for him and who was against him,then he wasn’t much of a politician.
译文:要是一个人不能一上任就看出谁支持他,谁反对他,那他就不配搞政治。
(4)英语常用连接代词、连接副词、关系代词或关系副词(who、whom、whose、that、which、when、where、why、how等)。这些词在英语中使用相当频繁。汉语没有这类起连接作用的代词和副词,也少用或不用其他连接词。其他连接词的使用频率也不及英语。[41]
例1.This was the period when Einstein began the research which resulted in the creation of his famous Theory of Relativity.
译文:就在这期间,爱因斯坦开始进行了一项研究。经过这项研究,他创立了著名的相对论。
例2.Practically all substances expand when heated and contract when cooled.
译文:几乎所有的物质都是热胀冷缩的。
反过来,汉译英时常需增补连接词,以符合英语的形合特征。
例1.火车未停,请勿开门。
Don’t open the door until the train stops.
例2.鸡蛋未孵,勿先数雏。
Don’t count your chickens before they are hatched.
例3.喝水不忘挖井人。
When you drink water,think of those who dug the well.
例4.无事不登三宝殿。
I wouldn’t come to you if I hadn’t something to ask of you.
英语组合语句的手段是形态、词序和虚词配合使用,三者相辅相成,互相调剂,互相替换。H.Sweet认为,“inflection itself has exactly the same function as the same function as the use of form word.”[42]如:
The nature of man(虚词)
Man’s nature(形态代替虚词,同时改变词序)
Tell him the news.(词序)
Tell the news to him.(借助虚词改变词序)
英语根据表达需要选择某种语法手段(形态、词序、虚词),但一般都有强制性。汉语语法是强制中有灵活性,灵活中有强制性。
这些问题已经解决了。
这些问题已经被解决了。
These problems have been solved.
昨天他很早起床。
昨天他很早就起床了。
Yesterday he got up very early.
(四)英语是语调语言,汉语是声调语言
由于现代英语的形态变化减少,词序变得相对固定,又没有类似汉语的语气助词可用来表达各种语气,因此,英语借助语音表意便成了一种重要的手段。英语的语音表意手段主要是语调(intonation)和重音。(stress)[43]
You may not go.
You said he would come.
汉语语音表意手段主要是声调(tone),还有语调及重读和轻读。
我爱妈
你的衣服
她不认识我
我叫他去
我想起来了
汉语语音另一特点:音节匀称,成双成对。现代汉语双音节化和四音节化。由于这一特点的影响,汉语词语和句式往往成双成对,对偶、对照、排比、反复和重叠多。英译汉时根据情况可考虑运用汉语的双音节或四音节。例如:
It was a day as fresh as grass growing up and clouds going over and butterflies coming down can make it.It was a day compounded from silences of bee and flower and ocean and land,which were not silences at all,but motions,stirs,flutters,risings,fallings,each in its own time and matchless rhythm.The land did not move,but moved.The sea was not still,yet was still.Paradox flowed into paradox,stillness mixed with stillness,sound with sound.The flowers vibrated and the bees fell in separate and small showers of golden rain on the clover.
译文:绿草萋萋,白云冉冉,彩蝶翩翩,这日子是如此清
新可爱;蜜蜂无言,春花不语,海波声歇,大地音寂,这日子是如此安静。然而并非安静,因为万物各以其特有的节奏、或动、或摇、或震、或起、或伏。大地止而亦行,大海动而亦静。万寂交而万籁和,若真若假,若是若非。繁花在微微颤动;蜜蜂一群群地落在三叶草上,有如阵阵黄金雨。[44]
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